The French Army and the Destruction of Roman Monuments in Algeria

43 Pages·2017·0.71 MB·English

by  Michael Greenhalgh

MichaelGreenhalgh
Sétif, Tébessa, Guelma: The French Army and the
Destruction of Roman Monuments in Algeria
Summary
TheantiquelandscapeofAlgeria–remainsoftowns,fortresses,villas–wasradicallyaltered
bytheFrencharmy,whichinvadedin(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:478),andsoughtthroughitsbuildingactivitiesto
caterforalargenumberoftroopsandauxiliaryservices,andthencolonists,recyclingma-
terialsfromRomanruinsformanyoftheirbuildings. TheFrenchofficer-corpswasoften
educatedintheclassics,aswasthebureaucracy,soaccountsofdiscoveriesanddestruction
areoftencomprehensive.Alas,therequirementsoftechnology,warandcolonialsettlement
–roads,railways,hospitals,barracks–ensuredthedestructionofmuchofRomanAlgeria.
Withouttheguerillawarwhichplaguedthecountryfordecades,andthecontinuingneed
forforts,manyoftheremainswouldprobablyhaveremainedintact.
Keywords:Archaeology;epigraphy;Algeria;Tunisia;Libya;historyofscience;spolia;
re-use.
DieantikeLandschaftAlgeriens–ÜberrestevonStädten,Festungen,Villen–wareinerra-
dikalenVeränderungdurchdiefranzösischeArmeeausgesetzt,alsdiese(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:478)indasLand
einfielundeinegroßeAnzahlvonTruppen,HilfskräftenundspäterKolonistenmitsich
brachteundzuversorgenhatte.FürdienunnötigenBautätigkeitenwurdenMaterialien
ausRömischenRuinenneugenutzt.DasfranzösischeOffizierskorpsundebensodieBeam-
tenhattenofteineklassischeAusbildunggenossen,weshalbihreBerichteüberEntdeckun-
genundZerstörungenderAltertümersehrumfangreichausfallen.Dennocherforderten
dieBedürfnissederKriegstechnikundderkolonialenSiedlungstätigkeit–Straßen,Schie-
nen,Krankenhäuser,Kasernen–dieZerstörungeinesgroßenTeilsdesrömischenAlgeriens.
OhnedenGuerilla-Krieg,welcherdasLandüberDekadenverwüsteteundeineanhaltende
NutzungvonFestungenerforderte,wärenvermutlichevieleÜberrestederRömerunver-
sehrtgeblieben.
Keywords:Archäologie;Epigraphie;Algerien;Tunesien;Libyen;Wissenschaftsgeschichte;
Spolien;Wiederverwendung.
StefanAltekamp,CarmenMarcks-Jacobs,PeterSeiler(eds.)|PerspektivenderSpolienfor-
schung(cid:480).ZentrenundKonjunkturenderSpoliierung|BerlinStudiesoftheAncientWorld(cid:482)(cid:478)
(ISBN(cid:487)(cid:485)(cid:486)-(cid:481)-(cid:487)(cid:486)(cid:479)(cid:484)(cid:481)(cid:486)(cid:482)-(cid:481)-(cid:479);URNurn:nbn:de:kobv:(cid:479)(cid:479)-(cid:479)(cid:478)(cid:478)(cid:480)(cid:481)(cid:487)(cid:487)(cid:486)(cid:482))|www.edition-topoi.org
(cid:479)(cid:481)(cid:481)
(cid:797)(cid:793)(cid:787)(cid:792)(cid:785)(cid:789)(cid:796)(cid:791)(cid:802)(cid:789)(cid:789)(cid:798)(cid:792)(cid:785)(cid:796)(cid:791)(cid:792)
(cid:479) Synopsis
The ancient landscape of Algeria was marvelled at by earlier travellers because of the
ubiquity and quantity of standing Roman remains, and because nothing similar sur-
vived anywhere in Europe. Most of the Roman remains were disused, but some had
theirelementsconvertedintofortresses,churchesormosques.Butthatantique-looking
landscape–towns, fortresses, villas–wasradicallyalteredbytheFrencharmy, which
invadedin(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:478),andsoughtthroughitsbuildingactivitiestocaterforalargenumber
oftroopsandauxiliaryservices. ImportingmaterialsfromFrancewas,generally,outof
thequestion–sotheRomanruinsofAlgeriasufferedgreatly.
TheFrencharmyhadanofficer-corpseducatedintheclassics,andabureaucratic
chainofcommandbacktoParis,wheremanyministersweresimilarlyinterestedinthe
past(cf. NapoleonBonaparteinearlierdecades). Allbuildingactivitiesrequiredmuch
paperwork,comments,signatures,arguments,sometimesplans,andfinallyapprovalor
rejection.Plentyofpaperworksurvives,enablingustochart(a)whatwasontheground
beforetheFrenchstartedbuilding;(b)thedestructivenatureoftheirbuilding-work;and
(c)theoccasionalactivitiesofthemilitaryinrecordingorevensavingantiquities. The
paperwilldocumenttheextentofFrenchdestructionbychartingthedegradationof
thethreecentresofGuelma(Qālima)(from(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:485)),Sétif(Sat.īf)(from(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487))andTébessa
(Tibissa)(from(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:483)(cid:479)).
The conclusion will be that it is the requirements of technology, war and settle-
mentalliedtoprejudicewhichensuredthedestructionofmanyoftheRomanremains
ofAlgeria. Withoutwar, manyoftheremainswouldprobablyhaveremainedintact.
HadtheFrenchnotbeenconcernedofthepossibilityofattackbyEuropeanswithcan-
non,therepairedRomanfortsofthefirstdecadeaftertheinvasionwouldprobablyhave
survived. Thebigcaesuraforthesurvivalordestructionofancientmonumentalfortifi-
cationsistheinventionofgunpowder,withwhichitwassoondemonstratedthatmost
ancientfortificationshadoutlivedtheirusefulness:noantiquefortressessurvivedinuse
inpost-gunpowderEuropewithoutasubstantialrefurbishmentwhichhidordestroyed
antique walls. (Mehmet the Conqueror made this verypoint withhis guns in (cid:479)(cid:482)(cid:483)(cid:481).)
Withthe‘success’inAlgeriacamecolonization. TheFrench‘colons’(oftendescribed
asignorant,rapaciousandlow-grade)werestillreusing(quiteillegally)Romanblocks
well into the twentieth century. All three trends might help explain the destruction
of Roman antiquities in mediaeval Europe, where it is a truism that useful buildings
(amphitheaters,tombs, theaters–allforprotectionand/orhousing)survivedwhereas
uselessones(temples,stadia)didnot.
The archives used are the Archives Nationales d’Outre-Mer (ANOM) in Aix-en-
Provence,andtheServiceHistoriquedelaDéfence/ArméedeTerre(SHD/T)inVin-
(cid:479)(cid:481)(cid:482)
(cid:803)é(cid:804)(cid:793)(cid:790),(cid:804)é(cid:786)(cid:789)(cid:803)(cid:803)(cid:785),(cid:791)(cid:805)(cid:789)(cid:796)(cid:797)(cid:785)
cennes,especiallytheEngineers(Génie),whowereresponsibleforbuildingwork,and
sometimestheArtillery,whoweretheirmainclients.
(cid:480) Introduction
It is an unfortunate fact that many more monuments in Algeria would survive today
had not the French invaded in (cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:478). The troops found themselves a long way from
home, and in need of services – water, defensive protection, most foodstuffs – which
couldonlybesuppliedlocally. Sometimesthisinvolvedthereconstructionofancient
monuments, or their dismantling so that the materials could be re-used. For water-
supply,ancientsystemswererefurbished. Butdestructionwasalsoassociatedwiththe
predatory behaviour of some French officers, who dismantled what they could take,
including marble and sold it – a practice as old as the hills, but not to be expected
fromadisciplinedarmyinthe(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:478)s.1 Inthisthesoldierynodoubtsimplyadoptedthe
attitudes of the Army itself, and especially the engineers, who destroyed monuments
for building materials with the one hand, and collected inscriptions with the other.2
Promptdocumentationofnewdiscoverieswasthekey,saidPoujoulat,quotingTexier
inthe(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:478)s;3butthen,inthesamebreath,adoptsaplenty-more-in-thegroundattitude
1 Pellissier(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:484)I,(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:485)–(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:486)ondubiousactivitiesof plupartdeceslieux,ensejoignantàM.lecontre-
someFrenchofficersinAlgeria:“plusd’unmilitaire amiralRigodit,quiavaitàinspectertouslesports
semitdanslacatégoriedecequ’onappelaitlesban- del’ouest.Ilapuainsiobserver,aveclesautresdé-
queroutiers,etplusd’unspéculateurdanscellede tailsdesbâtimentscivils,lesmoyensdeconserver
Vandales.Plusieursofficiersachetèrentdesmaisons lesruines,tracesdesanciennescivilisations…Le
etdesterres,etnedéployèrentpasdansleurstrans- corpsdugénieapuissammentcontribuéàlaforma-
actionsplusdescrupulesquelesspéculateursde tiond’unecollectiondesinscriptionsantiquesde
profession,etungrandnombredeceux-cisemirent l’Algérie.Maiscettecollectionnepeuts’accroître
àdévasterleursproprespossessions,coupantlesar- autantqu’elleenestsusceptiblequelorsquedes
bres,enlevantlesboiseries,lesmarbresetlesferre- moyensserontfournisparl’administrationpour
mentsdesmaisons,enfintoutcequiétaitenlevable; letransportdespierresépigraphiquesdanslemusée
aprèsavoirréalisédecettemanièrequelquesmil- localleplusvoisin,commeceluiqueleministre
liersdefrancs,ilsselaissaientexproprierparleurs del’instructionpubliquearécemmentvisitéà
vendeursmaurespourfautedepaiementdelarente Cherchell.Biendesinscriptionsanciennesgisent
qu’ilsavaientconsentie.” encoresurleborddeschemins,exposéesàchaque
2 Poujoulat(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:485)II,(cid:481)(cid:478)(cid:483)–(cid:481)(cid:478)(cid:485):“Conservationdesmon- instantàêtrebriséesouemployéescommematéri-
umentshistoriquesenAlgerie:Dansladernière auxdeconstruction.Telaétél’emploidesrestes
séancedel’AcadémiedesInscriptionsetBelles- debeaucoupdemonumentsàPhilippeville,à
Lettres,M.CharlesTexier,inspecteurgénéraldes Cherchell,àGuelma.”
bâtimentscivilsenAlgérie,etchargéencettequal- 3 Poujoulat(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:485)II,(cid:481)(cid:478)(cid:485):“Lesinstructionsduministre
itédelaconservationdesmonumentshistoriques,a delaguerres’opposent,engénéral,àladestruction
lulapartiedesondernierrapportauministrede desmonumentsantiques.Mais,pourpréscriredes
laguerreoùestexposél’étatdecesmonuments mesuresprécises,ilseraitnécessaire,ditM.Texier,
dansplusieurspartiesdel’Afriquefrançaise.C’est quel’administrationfûtinforméedesdécouvertes
aumoisd’aoûtdernierqueM.Texieraexploréla faitesparlesfouillesetparlestravauxdesroutes,
(cid:479)(cid:481)(cid:483)
(cid:797)(cid:793)(cid:787)(cid:792)(cid:785)(cid:789)(cid:796)(cid:791)(cid:802)(cid:789)(cid:789)(cid:798)(cid:792)(cid:785)(cid:796)(cid:791)(cid:792)
–sufficienttoattracttouristsfromEuropeevenifsomeofthecurrentlyavailablecrop
hadofnecessitytogointonewbuilding.4 Inwhatisunfortunatelynotaquip,headds
that“Lesinstructionsduministredelaguerres’opposent,engénéral,àladestruction
desmonumentsantiques”–butthegeneralwasevidentlytobedistinguishedfromthe
particular.
Butitwasalsothissamearmydisciplinewhich,viaitsbureaucracy,providesuswith
thebestinterfacebetweenthatarmyandthepast,asweshallnowdiscover,bymeansof
theamplequotationsfromarchivaldocumentswhichfollow,andwhichdemonstrate
veryclearlyhowmanyantiquitiesweretobeseenwhentheFrencharrivedinAlgeria–
andhowfewweretosurvive.
(cid:481) Tracingmonumenthistoriesthrougharmydocumentation
Thispaperistheresultofsolidandexactlycontemporarydocumentationandensuing
discussionprovidedbytheFrencharmyonthegroundinAlgeria,whograppleddayby
daywiththeproblemsofsecurity,housingandsupply. TheFrencharmy(notonlyin
Algeria)wasschooledinform-filling,andalsoinmethodicalreporting. Luckily,many
officers also had an interest in the past: the weight of Rome often lay heavy on their
shoulders, and they pursued these interests when time also lay heavy on their hands
– as it does in many armies. Reconnaissance reports (cf. the series MR – Mémoireset
Reconnaissances–intheSHD/TatVincennes)arenotallonprintedformsforourperiod,
buttheydisplaysuchconsistencyinwhattheyreportandhowtheyreportitthatwecan
besurethattheappropriatetechniquesweredrummedintotheofficersconcerned.
Thesearchivesareextraordinary,forfourreasons. Thefirstisthattheydealwithall
aspectsofbuilding,inresponsetoacentraladministration,whichexpectedtheauthors
tobeawareofthehistoricalcontext,andthereforeincludedspaceforitontheirrequired
etpûtenvoyersur-le-champundessinateurpour 4 Poujoulat(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:485)II,(cid:481)(cid:478)(cid:484):“Ilfautsansdoutefairela
copierlesmonumentsdécouverts,demanièreà partdelanécessitéquicommandaitdeconstruire
pouvoirstatuersurleurconservation.Lesarchives auplusvitelesédificesnécessairesauxprincipaux
recevraienttouslesdocumentsrecueillis,tantpar centresdepopulation.Cesconsidérations-làpassent
lesofficiersdugéniequeparlesagentsdesbâti- avanttouteslesautres.Mais,ditM.Texier,sil’on
mentscivilsetdesponts-et-chaussées,etchaquean- peutregretterainsiquelquesmonumentsdétruits,
néecesdocumentsseraientimprimesàlasuitedu ilenestencoreunemultitudequi,convenablement
tableaustatistique.Alorssi,parlaforcedeschoses, dégagésdeleursdécombresetrestaurésseulement
lesmonumentssetrouvaientdétruits,leurdescrip- pourenarrêterlaruine,serontencoreundesorne-
tionseraitaumoinsconsignéedansunregistreoffi- mentsdel’Algérieetunbutd’excursionpourles
ciel,etainsiconservéepourlascience.” voyageursdel’Europe.Ilesturgentpourcelaque
l’administrationlesprennesoussagardeetqu’un
créditsoitdemandépourlessoutenir.”
(cid:479)(cid:481)(cid:484)
(cid:803)é(cid:804)(cid:793)(cid:790),(cid:804)é(cid:786)(cid:789)(cid:803)(cid:803)(cid:785),(cid:791)(cid:805)(cid:789)(cid:796)(cid:797)(cid:785)
forms. Thesecondisthattheauthorsweresoldiersgenerallywithagoodclassicaled-
ucationwhograspedverywelltheAlgeriancontextwithinwhichtheywereworking.
ThethirdisthattheArmywasalwaysshortofmoneyandmanpower,sothattheywere
oftenthrownbackonre-usingtheRomanmonumentsintheirwork,asthebureaucrats
kepttryingtocutcapitalexpenditureyearafteryear. Theresultofthiswasthatwelearn
of various ways in which the ancient remains would be mis-used, reused or ignored.
The fourth is that nowhere else (except perhaps in the English Royal records) do we
findsuchdetailedinformationonthebuilding/rebuildingcycle,andfrequentlycome
upagainstthedirenecessityfeltbysoldierswhoadmiredtheremainstheyfound,but
weresometimesforcedbycircumstancetodestroythemiftheyweretosurvive.
Asaresult,wecanbesuretofindinsuchdocumentsaccurateinformationontopog-
raphy,butalsoonRomanroads,bridges,cisternsandforts. Andwhereactualfinancial
outlay was contemplated, record-keeping in terms of building-work was punctilious;
anditwasplentifulsinceannualrequestsbytheEngineersandtheArtilleryforbuild-
ingstartsoralterationsonthesettlementsandfortsbywhichtheFrenchpresencein
Algeriawastobesecuredhadtogothroughawell-triedprocess. Thisinvolvedaformal
printed‘livret’withrequirementsforhistoricalbackground,justificationandestimates,
submittedforcommentstotheDirectorofFortificationsateachcentre.
The ledgers therefore allow us to trace the alterations, projected and completed,
madetoRomanmonuments,especiallywalls,andtheoftenverylargecostsinvolved,
ofwhichwehavemanydetails. AtBougie(Bijāya),5forexample,thebuildingworksre-
quiredthreeforts,fourobservationposts,theCasbah(Qas.ba)and(cid:482).(cid:480)kmofwall–that
3
is, some(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:478)(cid:478)m ofstonetorepairthewallfromtheCasbahtoGouraya(Qūrāya),
whichalonewouldcost(cid:487)(cid:480)(cid:478)(cid:478)(cid:478)(cid:478)francs(perhapsEUR(cid:480)million). Thetotalfit-out(not
includinganymilitarybuildingsletalonethewatersupply)wasestimatedatover(cid:481)mil-
lionfrancs(perhapsEUR(cid:484).(cid:483)million)–aconsiderablesum.6
Itisbecauseofthemilitaryneedforimmediatelyavailablefortifications,ratherthan
forpurelyacademicreasons,thatwelearnsomuchoftheirhistoricaldimension.Totake
one example amongst many, when Chef du Génie Captain Antonin wrote a Mémoire
militairesurlaPlacedeSétif on(cid:480)(cid:486) Feb(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:483)(cid:485), this historicalaccount wasconsidered by
acommitteeandthenputinthearchivesoftheGénie“ouilserautilementconsulté”
5 Génie(cid:486).(cid:479)Bougiecarton(cid:479):(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:481)–(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:478),Vivien,Chef deBougie,(cid:481)mai(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:483),p.(cid:479)(cid:487);andidem.Rapportsurla
duGénie,Projetspour(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:482),Mémoiresurlaplacede placedeBougie(cid:479)(cid:480)Nov(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:481),(cid:479)(cid:483).Priceequivalenceis
Bougie,(cid:479)(cid:482)–(cid:480)(cid:482)forgooddescriptionsoftheCasbah difficulttodetermine,especiallygiventheexcep-
(Qas.ba),wallsandforts;ibid.,CapitainedeGénie tionalcircumstancesinAlgeria;butin(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:478)(cid:484)the
enChefBoutauli,NotessurBougie,(cid:479)(cid:487)mai(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:485), leadfortheColonneVendome((cid:480)(cid:483)(cid:479)(cid:481)(cid:484)(cid:485)kg)cost
pp.(cid:479)(cid:479)–(cid:479)(cid:480)foradescriptionoftheRomancity. (cid:479)(cid:487)(cid:485)(cid:483),(cid:482)(cid:479)(cid:485)F(EUR(cid:482).(cid:481)million),andin(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:485)(cid:483)Courbet
6 Génie(cid:486).(cid:479)Bougiecarton(cid:479):(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:481)–(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:478),DrL. wascharged(cid:481)(cid:480)(cid:481)(cid:478)(cid:478)(cid:478)F(cid:484)centimes(EUR(cid:485)(cid:479)(cid:478)(cid:478)(cid:478)(cid:478))as
Mercier,Mémoiresurl’évacuationoulaconservation thecostofrebuildingit.
(cid:479)(cid:481)(cid:485)
(cid:797)(cid:793)(cid:787)(cid:792)(cid:785)(cid:789)(cid:796)(cid:791)(cid:802)(cid:789)(cid:789)(cid:798)(cid:792)(cid:785)(cid:796)(cid:791)(cid:792)
– by most for its military information, but by us for what it reveals of the reuse and
maltreatmentoftheancientmonuments.7
Reportsandsubmissions(whichwillbestudiedforthreeRomansitesinAlgeria)
makeitabundantlyclearthattheArmyofficers–oftenartilleryorengineers–concerned
withre-usingtheancientmonumentswerewellawareofthegloriesofRomanAlgeria,if
notthrougheducation,thenbecauseofbureaucracy. Forsomeoftheformstheyhadto
completeannuallywhenrequestingfundsforconstructionworkrequiredanoverview
ofthehistoricalcontexttobewritten. Theaccountsofmanysoldiersdetailthevarious
wondersofthishugecountry. Between(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:485)and(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487),forexample,CommandantNiel
visitsDjemilah(Jīmīlā),nearSétif,theruinsofwhich
…présententplusd’intérêtquetoutescellesqu’onatrouvéenAfriquejusqu’à
cejour. Aucuneoccupationbarbaren’asuccédéesurcepointàcelledesRo-
mains.Letempsseuladétruitlesmonuments.Aussionpeutadmirerleurbelle
architectureetretrouvertoutesleursformesenréunissantlespierreséparsesau-
tourd’eux.8
He sees the same date and typology at Milah (Mīla),9 and also at Guelma where, re-
marking on the large quantity of columns of red marble, beautiful cornices, etc., he
describes10 thecitadelas“unereconstructionfaiteavecdespierresprisesdanslesédi-
ficesdéjàruinées”–andoccupiedbythefirstexpeditionfromConstantine(Qusant.īna)
in(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:484).
(cid:482) Coloniesandtheirhistoricalcontext
TheFrenchconcernwithcolonizingthecountrywithinadecadeoftheinvasiongave
herofficersafurtherinterestindestruction–namelythedemiseofRomansettlements
of which walls incorporating antiquities were often a good indication. In this sense
there is a dialogue between the antique strategy that could be read in the ruins and
whatmightbelearnedfromitforcurrentpurposes–aninterestwellseeninCharon’s
7 Génie(cid:479)H(cid:487)(cid:479)(cid:478):PlacedeSétif,(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487)–(cid:479)(cid:487)(cid:478)(cid:481):recom- 9 GénieH(cid:480)(cid:480)(cid:485)Niel,Reconnaissances,(cid:480)(cid:485):“unepiscine
mendationof(cid:482)Jan(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:484)(cid:479),thecopy-documentis romaineassezbienconservée,quis’appuiesur
signedbyCharon,GénéraldeDivision;Genet,sec- l’enceinte.Elleestdéfendueparuneenceintero-
retaryandLieut-ColdeGénie;Charrier,Chefde maine,oudumoinsconstruiteaveclespierresde
Bataillon,Chefd’EtatMajorduGénieenAlgérie; l’ancienneciteromaine,quiétaitbeaucoupplus
andRandon,SecretaryofStateforWar. étendue,sil’onenjugeparlesruineséparsesqu’on
8 GénieH(cid:480)(cid:480)(cid:485),Niel,Reconnaissancesfaitesdansle trouveendehorsdesrempartsactuels.”
ProvincedeConstantineen(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:485),(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:486)et(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487),(cid:480)(cid:487). 10 GénieH(cid:480)(cid:480)(cid:485)Niel,Reconnaissances,(cid:481)(cid:482).
(cid:479)(cid:481)(cid:486)
(cid:803)é(cid:804)(cid:793)(cid:790),(cid:804)é(cid:786)(cid:789)(cid:803)(cid:803)(cid:785),(cid:791)(cid:805)(cid:789)(cid:796)(cid:797)(cid:785)
Mémoiremilitairesurl’Algérieof(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:486).11 Itshouldbeunderlinedthatcolonizationwasat
thisdateamilitarymatter–perhapsthecruxofwhethertheFrenchcouldmakeasuccess
oftheconquest–andthathere,aswiththere-useofRomanmonuments,historywasof
vitalpracticaluse. ThisiswellillustratedbythecommissioningbytheMinisterofWar
inthe(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:478)sofasurveyofthehistoryofcolonization.12 Thereportwasof(cid:484)(cid:481)pp.in-folio,
andtherewerethreevolumesprojectedforpublication. Butweretheyeverpublished?
(cid:483) Casestudy(cid:479): Sétif
At Sétif (Sat.īf) (Fig. (cid:479)) we can trace, sometimes year by year, the depredations of the
FrenchontheRomanmonuments. Immediatelyafterthecaptureofthetownbythe
Frenchin(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487),CommandantdeGénieNielreportedonthemagnificentenceinteof
the citadel,13 which was (cid:479)(cid:478) m high in parts, but with gaps where it was “écroulée et
d’énormespierresdetaillerecouvertesdeterresoudedécombresdonnentunaccesfacile
dansl’intérieure”(Fig.(cid:480)).
Heunderlinedthe“richessedematériaux”,butadmittedthatthispresentedaprob-
lem, since “on aurait à déplacer et à remonter sur le mur de pierres de dimensions
énormesetquiexigeraientdeschèvressurdesbiguesetbeaucoupdepincesdegrandes
dimensions”. Theworkwouldrequire(cid:487)(cid:478)(cid:478)men,andalthoughmostoftheworkofmak-
inggoodcouldbedonein(cid:480)–(cid:481)weeks, abattalionwouldbeneededtofinishthetask
within(cid:480)–(cid:481)months. Helookedattheproblemwithapracticaleye,becausehehadto
determinewhatworkwouldbeneededtoputthedefencesinorderforabatallionof(cid:484)(cid:478)(cid:478)
men. Notingthatstoneformakinglimewasplentiful(washereferringtoantiquities–
11 GénieH(cid:480)(cid:480)(cid:487)Algérie:Mémoiresdivers(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:482)–(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:483)(cid:487): Ils’agitend’autrestermesdefairelaphilosophiede
GénéralCharon,Mémoiremilitairesurl’Algérie,(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:486), lacolonisationRomaineenAfriqueetdesignaler
(cid:481)(cid:485)(cid:478)pages.HeiswellawareofRomanstrategy,and lesenseignementsquipurentenrésulterpourla
keepscomparingit(i.e.ineffectparallelingit)with dominationfrançaise.”
currentrequirements(e.g.(cid:481)(cid:481)(cid:483)onSétif&Djemi- 13 Génie(cid:486).(cid:479)SétifCarton(cid:479),(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487)–(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:482),Comman-
lah).Thiswell-writtenandlegibleaccountcovers dantdeGénieNiel,RapportsurlacitadelledeSétif,
thewholecountry. (cid:481)(cid:478)mai(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487),(cid:479).Thisherecognizesaslateantique:
12 ANOMf(cid:486)(cid:478)(cid:479)(cid:485)(cid:481)(cid:481),undatedbut(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:478)s,“Notesurle thesewallsarefrom“unesecondeoccupation...
travailconfieàM.F.Lacroix:untravailhistorique Despierrestumulaires,deschapiteaux,etdesfûtsde
ayantpourobjetd’étudierlesystèmedecolonisa- colonnes,formentparementdanslesmursdesdeux
tionadoptéparlesRomainsenAfrique,etplus enceintes”–andtheverysizeoftheruinfieldindi-
particulièrement,derecherchercommentilsor- catestheimportanceoftheRomancity(pp.(cid:481)(cid:479)–(cid:481)(cid:480)).
ganisèrentcepays,quelsfurentleursprocédésen Cf.alsoCartonH(cid:480)(cid:480)(cid:485)Niel,Reconnaissances,wherein
matièreagricole,financière,administrative,judici- theenceinteatSétifisdescribed(cid:481)(cid:479)–(cid:481)(cid:480):“Lesmatéri-
aire,politique,réligieuse,militaireetc.;quelsfurent auxsontsurplacemaisilfaudraitlesenginenéces-
lesrésultatséconomiquesdeleurdominationsur sairespourremuerlesénormespierresdetailledes
cettecontrée;quelleinfluenceelleexercasurlapop- Romains.”
ulationindigène,enfinpourquellecauseellecassa.
(cid:479)(cid:481)(cid:487)
(cid:797)(cid:793)(cid:787)(cid:792)(cid:785)(cid:789)(cid:796)(cid:791)(cid:802)(cid:789)(cid:789)(cid:798)(cid:792)(cid:785)(cid:796)(cid:791)(cid:792)
Fig.(cid:479) Sétif:mapofthearea,
withthevariousencampments.
Fig.(cid:480) Sétif:viewofthecen-
tralByzantinefort,withFrench
soldierslivingintents.
(cid:479)(cid:482)(cid:478)
(cid:803)é(cid:804)(cid:793)(cid:790),(cid:804)é(cid:786)(cid:789)(cid:803)(cid:803)(cid:785),(cid:791)(cid:805)(cid:789)(cid:796)(cid:797)(cid:785)
ifso,tomarbleantiquities?),hepointedoutthatthelackofwoodwasasevereproblem.
Thesuggestedbuildingworkwasnotundertaken,forthewallwasinthesamestatetwo
yearslater.14
Sétif provides an early example of the large expenditures in men and money to
make-and-mendtheRomanwalls,withthedegradationoftheancientremainsincreas-
inginlinewiththepopulationasgreaterconstructionalrobustnesswasrequired.When
theFrencharrivedatSétifin(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487),theirforcesweresosmallthattheytookpossession
ofthelaterByzantineenceinte, ratherthanthemuchlargerRomanone.15 Aplanof
(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:482) (by which date there were (cid:481)(cid:479)(cid:484)(cid:478) men there) shows the relationship between the
twoenceintes16;andanotherof(cid:480)(cid:486)May(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:484)showstheFrenchalsocampedoutsidethe
Byzantineenceinteandinsidethelarger,earlierRomanone,lessofwhichwasnowvis-
ible. Itwasclearlyfastdisappearing: andalthoughaMémoireof(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:482)notedthework
needed to “empêcher la dégradation du mur romain”,17 the fact was that the French
settlementsoonoutgrewearlyprojections.18 AnotherMémoirebytheChefduGénie
of(cid:480)(cid:486)Feb(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:483)(cid:485),CaptainAntonin,notesthat“Lesruinesdesapremièreenceintedont
lesfondationsétaientencorevisiblesànotrearrivée”–butnolonger.19 Inspiteofthe
fact that this enceinte was some (cid:482)(cid:484)(cid:478) m west to east, and (cid:481)(cid:479)(cid:478) m north to south, with
wallsstandingtobetween(cid:479).(cid:483)mand(cid:480)minheight, littlenowremained. Forsixteen
years, writes the engineer, Sétif had been exploited as a quarry, and was still far from
exhausted.Butthen,healsonotedthatin(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:483)(cid:485)therewere(cid:479)(cid:485)(cid:486)masonsandstone-cutters
atSétif. Withthepopulationrisingfrom(cid:481)(cid:479)(cid:484)(cid:482)in(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:483)(cid:484),to(cid:487)(cid:480)(cid:483)(cid:485)in(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:485)(cid:484),thethirstfor
buildingmaterialsiseasilyunderstoodevenif,asearlyas(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:482),theapparentlyinevitable
14 Génie(cid:479)H(cid:487)(cid:479)(cid:478)SétifArt(cid:479):SétifProjetspour(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:479) defensibleareainByzantinefashion!Asforbuild-
“restaureretorganiserl’enceintedelacitadelle... ingmaterials,“onadanssonenceintemêmeune
releverlaportiondel’enceinte...etlarattacherà immensequantitédepierresdetailleromainesqui
laCitadelle”.Planof(cid:480)(cid:478)March(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:479)showsCitadel acoûpsurneserontpasépuisésavantlafindescon-
withNSwallcuttingittwo-thirdstotheWestand structionsmilitairesdeSétif.Lesdébrisdecespier-
one-thirdtotheEast.AndintheApostillesduDi- resserventpourfairedelachaux”.Buttheenceinte
recteurdesFortificationsfor(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:479)itisnotedthatin wastoosmallwithinadecade:cf.MémoireMilitaire
partstheCitadel“estenmauvaisétat,ellen’aque surlaplacedeSétif,(cid:480)(cid:484)Feb(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:483)(cid:485),CapitainedeGénie
deuxoutroishauteursd’assises”. Antonin:hebeginswitha“HistoriquedelaPlace”,
15 MRH(cid:480)(cid:480)(cid:487),GénéralCharon,Mémoiremilitairesur thenreviewsfortificationsbydate:(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:479):“Ons’est
l’Algérie,(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:486),(cid:481)(cid:481)(cid:484). bornéàfairequelquesréparationsàl’enceintero-
16 Génie(cid:479)H(cid:487)(cid:479)(cid:478):PlacedeSétif,(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487)–(cid:479)(cid:487)(cid:478)(cid:481),Plan maine”;(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:480):masonrycourtinesbuilt;(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:481)–(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:483):
d’ensembledesenvironsdeSétif,(cid:481)(cid:479)July(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:482). completionof(erstwhileRoman?)towers;(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:485):
17 Génie(cid:479)H(cid:487)(cid:479)(cid:478):PlacedeSétif,(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487)–(cid:479)(cid:487)(cid:478)(cid:481):Mémoiresur expansionofgraeco-romanenceinte,including
lesProjetspour(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:482),(cid:479)May(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:482),ApostillesduChef crenellations,demolitionofantiquebastions,and
deGénie. courtines;(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:483)(cid:483):militaryenceintetoosmall,andis
18 Génie(cid:479)H(cid:487)(cid:479)(cid:478)SétifArt(cid:479):PlanofSétif(cid:481)(cid:479)July(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:482) thereforeexpanded.
clearlyshowsthelargeRomanenceintewiththe 19 Génie(cid:479)H(cid:487)(cid:479)(cid:478):PlacedeSétif,(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487)–(cid:479)(cid:487)(cid:478)(cid:481),Captain
fortwithinit.Bythrowingawallnorthfromthe Antonin,MémoiremilitairesurlaPlacedeSétif,(cid:483).
forttotheRomanwalls,theFrenchrestrictedthe
(cid:479)(cid:482)(cid:479)
(cid:797)(cid:793)(cid:787)(cid:792)(cid:785)(cid:789)(cid:796)(cid:791)(cid:802)(cid:789)(cid:789)(cid:798)(cid:792)(cid:785)(cid:796)(cid:791)(cid:792)
Fig.(cid:481) Sétif:antiquities–templesandtombs–aroundthesite.
destructionoftheByzantineenceintewasamatterforregret.20 Notthatregrets,even
when expressed in official documents, prevented action on what was really a field of
ruins(Fig.(cid:479)–(cid:480)). 21
The smaller Byzantine enceinte was also quickly destroyed. An account of (cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:486)
describesitasrectangular,withtenlargetowers;this“existaitencoreilyaquelquesan-
nées”.22 Niel’sanswertothefortificationpossibilitiesmighthavebeenthesameasthat
intheletterof(cid:479)(cid:479)June(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487)fromGenéralGalboistoMaréchaldelaVallée,namelythat
(cid:479)(cid:483)daysofworkwouldseethefortunattackablebyArabs. Butthiswasobviouslyarush
job, andperhapsnotwelldone, sincein(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:480)itisproposedtoreducethevillageen-
ceinte,andcutitbacktofollowthetraceoftheRomanenceinte,withaheightof(cid:481)m,23
anditisclearthattheoldwallswereusedtobuildthenew. Thus“Laformeadoptée
20 TheMémoireMilitairedeSétif (cid:481)(cid:479)July(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:482)byCapi- nécéssairespourlesconstructionsnouvelles,cequi
taineenChefduGénieChampanhetmentions“les n’afaitfaireencorequepeudedécouvertes”–i.e.
ruinesimmensesquenousdécouvrons”(i.e.inar- thenewdestroystheold.
rangingtheirowndefensiveconstructions)andalso 21 MR(cid:479)(cid:481)(cid:479)(cid:485)item(cid:484)(cid:487),Tacot,Noticesurlasubdivisionde
thelatestenceinte“aprèsl’expulsiondesVandales” Sétif,(cid:480)(cid:478)August(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:486).
madewithreusedmaterials.But“malheureusement 22 Ibid.
lesruinesquelessièclesontentasséeslesunessur 23 Génie(cid:486).(cid:479)SétifCarton(cid:479),(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:481)(cid:487)–(cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:482),Projetspour
lesautresnesontmisesàjourqueparlesfouilles (cid:479)(cid:486)(cid:482)(cid:480),ApostillesduDirecteur,(cid:479)(cid:481).
(cid:479)(cid:482)(cid:480)