The Fate and Effects of Oil in Freshwater

342 Pages·1989·11.368 MB·English

by  M. W. Trett (auth.), J. Green, M. W. Trett (eds.)

TTHHEE FFAATTEE AANNDD EEFFFFEECCTTSS OOFF OOIILL IINN FFRREESSHHWWAATTEERR
THE FATE AND EFFECTS OF
OIL IN FRESHWATER
Edited by
J. GREEN AND M. W. TRETI
Centre for Research in Aquatic Biology
University of London
QMC
Published in association with
The British Petroleum Company p.l.c.
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WITH 23 TABLES AND 49 ILLUSTRATIONS
© 1989 ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1989
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
The fate and effects of oil in freshwater.
1. Fresh waters. Pollution by petroleum
I. Green, J. II. Trett, M. W.
363.7'394
Library of Congress CIP Data
The Fate and effects of oil in freshwater/edited by J. Green and
M. W. Trett.
p. cm.
"Published in association with the British Petroleum
Company,
p.l.c."
Bibliography: p.
Includes indexes.
1. Oil pollution of rivers, harbours, etc. 2. Freshwater
ecology.
I. Green, J. (James), 1928- II. Trett, M. W. (Marcus W.)
TD427.P4F37 1989
628.1 '6833-dc20 89-1521
ISBN-13: 978-94-010-699().8 e-ISBN-13:978-94-009-1109-3
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-11 09-3
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PREFACE
Freshwater is a most precious natural resource. To the developed world,
refreshing, untainted water is presumed from the taps of millions of
householders. The many rivers, streams, ponds and lakes are for the
pleasure and enjoyment of the leisure hours of urban dweller and rural
inhabitant alike-boating, fishing, sailing and swimming come readily
to mind. To the agriculturalist and industrialist it is often the cornerstone
of their enterprises. To the environmentalist and naturalist it is the basis
of the wetland and open water communities which provide the habitats
for a wealth of flora and fauna.
In the developing world the emphasis is very different. A spring, well,
river or swamp is the basis of day-to-day survival for family, livestock
and crops. Subsistence fishing is often the major source of protein.
Freshwater may be the unwitting purveyor of disease but with good
management this can be regulated and monitored.
But Man by nature, is a selfish species who tends to have scant
regard for the quality of life of future generations. The much publicised
destruction of forests is a notorious example. Not so well-known is the
pressure on one of the world's most fragile ecosystems, the wetlands.
Wetlands account for about 6% of the world's land surface. It is claimed
that the world may have lost half of its wetlands since 1900. In the
United States alone it is estimated that up to 60% have been lost in
recent history. In Developing Countries statistics are hard to come by,
but degradation and destruction of wetlands is all too apparent. In
tJganda, for example, the Government, through their Ministry of
Environment Protection, is acutely concerned with diminished wetland
and freshwater resources. In this case they have instigated an urgent
v
vi PREFACE
assessment of their own swamps and lakes for sustainable renewable
resource development.
The world's freshwater resources are not only under pressure from
exploitation but the quality of water is under threat from pollution. In
order to satisfy the future needs of Man it is essential that the remaining
wetlands and freshwater be protected from contamination and managed
correctly. Whilst the degradation in quality of surface waters may attract
attention, that of groundwaters is arguably more sinister.
Over the last two decades the majority of work related to the fate and
effects of oil entering the aquatic environment has been directed towards
studies concentrating on petroleum pollution in the sea. The ecological
disasters following the Torrey Canyon spill in Britain during 1967 and
the Amoco Cadiz catastrophe off the Brittany coast in 1978 resulted
in major advances in studying the interactive physical, chemical and
biological processes that accompany petroleum perturbation in the mar
ine environment.
The work of the UK Royal Commission in 1981 and the US National
Research Council in 1975 and 1985 on oil pollution of the sea, emphasised
Governments' concern and anxiety about the marine environment, par
ticularly the threat posed by major oil spills from tanker accidents.
Sadly, parallel concern for the freshwater environment has lagged
behind and to date, very little information has been published on the
potential problems of pollution by oil. However, incidents involving
spills of petroleum during inland exploration and production, transport,
refining or storage often do occur. Further, it is to rivers and terrestrial
runoff from municipal, urban and industrial sources where we find a
significant input of petroleum and petroleum derivatives entering the
environment.
The work of Miiller (1987) and Vandermeulen and Hrudey (1987) has
provided a good background for this review which stems from the
growing awareness of the problems of petroleum and petroleum-related
compounds in our lakes and rivers.
This book provides a synthesis of our current understanding of the
fate and effects of oil in freshwater. The objectives are centred around
four main themes:
1. To provide a comprehensive compilation, summary and critical
evaluation of the available scientific literature on the impact of
petroleum on freshwater organisms.
2. To review procedures for the cleanup of petroleum from freshwater
PREFACE vii
habitats and to examine restoration and recovery rates.
3. To provide background information on the chemistry and fate of
petroleum in freshwater.
4. To identify gaps in information on the effects of petroleum con
tamination on freshwater.
The information contained in this review hopefully will be of value to
a wide variety of users. It may serve as a source of data for the preparation
of environmental impact statements concerning the potential effects of
petroleum on freshwater ecosystems. Investigators interested in init
iating, or those currently conducting studies of the fate and effects of
petroleum or petroleum-related products in freshwater, will be provided
with a review of historic and current research. Agencies interested in
funding or conductip.g research pertinent to these subjects can rapidly
survey the spectrum of available information to determine research areas
relevant to their own interests and needs and to identify gaps in the data
base. The information provided might also be of use in predicting the
potential impacts of freshwater spills. Finally, the review will be useful
as an introduction to methods of cleanup applied to accidental release
of petroleum.
It is opportune that this project was initiated and financed by BP
International as a contribution to the European Year of the Environment
(EYE) and was undertaken by The Centre for Research in Aquatic
Biology, Queen Mary College, London. An example of industry and
university working together towards a better environment.
DR PATRICK DENNY
Centre for Research in
Aquatic Biology
DR CHRISTOPHER GIRTON
BP International Ltd.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our thanks to Dr Christopher Girton (BP
International Limited) for the advice and constructive comments that
he has provided throughout the preparation of this review. Similarly
thanks are due to Mr D. V. Scammells (BP Sunbury Research Centre),
Dr R. Large (M-Scan Limited), Mr A. Girling (Shell Research Limited),
Dr J. W. Eaton (University of Liverpool), Dr B. Dicks (International
Tanker Owners Pollution Federation), Mr B. Pyburn (Southampton Oil
Spill Service Centre), Dr N. S. Battersby (Water Research Centre) and
Dr J. M. Hellawell (Nature Conservancy Council) who reviewed the
text. We are grateful to Dr Judy Hutchinson who typed much of the text
and to other colleagues at the Centre for Research in Aquatic Biology
for their helpful suggestions and access to miscellaneous literature
sources. The assistance of Mr Richard Feil and Mr John Crouch in the
preparation of the indices is also gratefully acknowledged. Finally we
gratefully acknowledge the opportunity and funding provided by BP
International Limited that allowed us to undertake this review.
JAMES GREEN
MARCUS TRETI
1989
viii
CONTENTS
Preface...................................................................................... v
Acknowledgements.......... .... .. ............................ ........................... VIlI
List of Contributors........................................... .......................... Xl
Chapter 1 Introduction .............................................................. 1
M.W. Trett
Chapter 2 Composition, Sources and Source Identification
of Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Their Residues. 11
R.A. Gill and P.W.J. Robotham
Chapter 3 Input, Behaviour and Fates of Petroleum
Hydrocarbons ........................................................... 41
P.W.J. Robotham and R.A. Gill
Chapter 4 Biological and Ecological Effects of Oils ............... 81
S. Shales, B.A. Thake, B. Frankland, D.H. Khan, J.D.
Hutchinson and C.F. Mason
Chapter 5 Biological and Ecological Effects of Dispersants. 173
M.W. Trett, S. Shales, B.A. Thake, B. Frankland,
D.H. Khan, J.D. Hutchinson and C.F. Mason
Chapter 6 Biodegradation of Oil in Freshwaters ................... 197
M. Brown
Chapter 7 Clean-Up Technology .............................................. 215
M. Brown
ix
x CONTENTS
Chapter 8 Restoration and Recovery ... ...... .... .......... ....... ........ 227
J.D. Hutchinson
Chapter 9 Summary and Conclusions..................................... 259
M.W. Trett, J.D. Hutchinson, C.F. Mason, B. Frankland,
D.H. Khan and S. Shales
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Glossary.................................................................................... 313
Systematic Index.......................................................................... 323
General Index............................................................................. 331
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
MELANIE BROWN
Archaeus Limited, Queen Mary College, University of London, Mile
End Road, London EI 4NS UK
PATRICK DENNY
Centre for Research in Aquatic Biology, Queen Mary College, Uni
versity of London, Mile End Road, London EI 4NS UK
BARRY FRANKLAND
Centre for Research in Aquatic Biology, Queen Mary College, Uni
versity of London, Mile End Road, London EI 4NS UK
ROBERT A. GILL
Biological Sciences, Derbyshire College of Higher Education, Ked
leston Road, Derby DE3 1GB UK
CHRISTOPHER GIRTON
Group Environmental Services, BP International Limited, Moorgate,
London EC2Y 9BU UK
JUDY D. HUTCHINSON
Centre for Research in Aquatic Biology, Queen Mary College, Uni
versity of London, Mile End Road, London EI 4NS UK
DANIEL H. KHAN
School of Biological Sciences, Queen Mary College, University of
London, Mile End Road, London EI 4NS UK
CHRISTOPHER F. MASON
School of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park,
Colchester C043SQ UK
xi