The Facts on File Companion to British Poetry Before 1600

529 Pages·2008·3.09 MB·English

by  Sauer, Michelle M.

the fa cts on fil e
C o m p a n i o n t o
British
Poetry
Before 1600
C D
michelle m. Sauer
the Facts on File Companion to British poetry before 1600
copyright © 2008 michelle m. Sauer
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-publication Data
The Facts on File companion to British poetry before 1600 / [edited by] michelle m. Sauer.
p. cm. — (companion to literature)
“The Facts On File companion to British Poetry before 1600 is part of a four-volume set on British poetry from
the beginnings to the present.”
includes bibliographical references and index.
iSBN 978-0-8160-6360-4 (acid-free paper) 1. english poetry. i. Sauer, michelle m., 1972– ii. Facts on File, inc.
iii. Title: companion to British poetry before 1600.
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Contents
C D
introduction iv
acknowledgments xiii
Journal aBBreviations xiv
entries a to Z 1
aPPendixes
i. glossary 484
ii. selected Bibliography 487
iii. contributors list 489
index 497
IntroduCtIon
C D
How to Use tHis Book ity, was not part of the monarchial title). in essence,
english culture was one of colonization, starting with
The Facts On File Companion to British Poetry before 1600
the original Germanic invasions.
is part of a four-volume set on British poetry from its
recent criticism has striven to present ireland and
beginning to the present. This particular volume cov-
irish literature within the context of postcolonial
ers poetry written during the anglo-Saxon, middle
studies, and these ideas have been extended to Welsh
english, and early renaissance (Tudor) literary peri-
and Scottish literary productions too. Despite being
ods in the area traditionally referred to as the British
problematic, however, the term British is the one used
isles, which includes england, ireland, Scotland, and
most often, if just for convenience sake. Part of the dif-
Wales.
ficulty with the discussion also stems from differences
Today’s Great Britain includes Wales, Scotland,
in viewing terms from an american standpoint versus
england, and Northern ireland. The republic of
an english, irish, Welsh, or Scottish one. universities
ireland has been independent since 1921. The issue
of what, exactly, makes up “British literature” is a in the united Kingdom and the republic of ireland
complicated one. certainly, the first “British” people tend to separate english studies from celtic studies;
were celtic in origin, and the word itself derives however, that same separation is rarer in american
from the people who populated a region that is now colleges and universities. in fact, one of the traditional
in northern France (Brittany). after the Germanic staples of the american curriculum is the “British liter-
invasions (traditional date 449 c.e.), the angles and ature survey,” which generally includes celtic contexts.
Saxons melded into a singular culture that pushed Thus, British literature is a loosely used term in the
the celtic Britons into the further reaches of Wales, united States, without any overt politically disruptive
cornwall, and Scotland. as they expanded outward, intent. This is not an excuse, per se, but rather more
the anglo-Saxons tended to absorb the native culture; of an explanation, and one that certainly warrants fur-
thus, arthur—originally Welsh in origin—became ther discussion. in the meantime, however, the reality
an anglo-Saxon hero. certainly, the anglo-Saxons, is that the celtic literatures are often grouped under
and, later, the english, embarked upon campaigns of the heading “British.” although not an ideal solution,
military conquest against the various celtic peoples i suggest that it is preferable to excluding the literature
and over the years subjugated Wales, ireland, and altogether, or to grouping it under the title “english”
Scotland. By the time James Stuart took the throne literature. even “literature written in english” is exclu-
as James i in 1603, he was styled King of england, sionary, especially in the medieval and renaissance
Scotland, and ireland (Wales, as an annexed principal- eras, when so much literary production took place in
iv
introDuCtion v
latin, anglo-Norman, Welsh, middle Scots, and other given as Sidney (not Sydney) and Spenser (not Spencer)
languages. i hope, then, that i can be forgiven the term consistently throughout the volume. however, if the
British, especially in regards to the multilingual fluidity standard medieval or early modern spelling of a work
of the medieval era alongside a fervent desire not to does not interfere with understanding, it has usually
make any political gaffes. been retained (e.g., Spenser’s poem is The Shepheard’s
entries cover the poems and poets most often Calender, not The Shepherd’s Calender).
taught in high school and college classrooms and the Some of the finest poetry of the period is in the form
concepts most important to understanding the poetry of the sonnet, and many sonnets appeared as part of
of the period. The approach throughout is to combine larger works called sonnet sequences. in this volume,
current critical approaches with more traditional meth- major sonnet sequences, such as Sidney’s Astrophil
ods, providing a balanced framework and presenting and Stella, are discussed generally in overview entries
works in the context of their time. entries are self-con- under the title of the sequence, with individual cover-
tained and relatively jargon-free. although primarily age of the most commonly read and important sonnets
aimed at a student audience, this book is also designed given in subsections just below the overview entry.
to benefit teachers, librarians, and general readers who (Shakespeare’s untitled sequence appears under the
love poetry. editorially given name Shakespeare’s Sonnets.) This same
entries on individual poems provide an overview convention holds true for other longer works that are
or summary of the text and a discussion of the style frequently excerpted (e.g., Piers Plowman). There are
or genre of the work. Difficult terms are glossed, two major exceptions to this practice. The individual
and historical and literary context is provided where “tales” of chaucer’s Canterbury Tales appear as unique
appropriate and necessary. The standard or most com- entries, alphabetized under the name of their titles (for
mon interpretation of the work is usually presented, example, “The Pardoner’s Tale” appears under P), as
in addition to an overview of critical debates and cur- do the individual lays (lais) in marie de France’s collec-
rent trends. Biographical entries provide information tion. These works are often taught as individual pieces
about the author’s life and work in general. historical rather than as part of a greater whole, and it seemed
entries cover significant events relevant to the creation, more useful to categorize them as such in this book.
distribution, and inspiration of pre-1600 poetry (e.g., as well, since the prologues and epilogues are usually
the Norman conquest). Thematic entries provide taught with each individual canterbury Tale, those
background discussion on important areas, such as the discussions are assumed throughout.
classical tradition, while entries on poetic terms impor- unless otherwise indicated, the standard editions
tant to the period clarify entry content and provide for works are used. The Riverside Chaucer (houghton-
relevant examples drawn from works included in vol- mifflin, 1987) and The Riverside Shakespeare (houghton-
ume. There are a few non-British writers, such as Ovid mifflin, 1997) can be assumed for all relevant entries.
and Virgil, included if they had a profound impact on For entries on major sonnet sequences and other
British poetry. The appendix includes a bibliography longer works, the main editions and critical works
and a brief glossary of general poetic terms. used for each entry on a particular sonnet appear at
the end of the overview entry. any further reading lists
EDitoriaL ConvEntions appearing in individual sonnet entries reflect addi-
many scholars have contributed to this encyclopedia, tional sources.
but i strove to achieve conformity of content and Where necessary, dates are written as b.c.e. (Before
style, if not complete uniformity. all entries feature the the common era) or c.e. (common era). Derogatory
contributor’s name at the end of the entry. unsigned terminology (e.g., pagan instead of pre-Christian or non-
entries were written by the volume editor. Christian) and disparaging nicknames (e.g., “Bloody
For the most part, spelling has been regularized to mary” Tudor) are not used. The terms Renaissance and
modern standards: for example, the poets’ names are early modern are used interchangeably throughout this
vi introDuCtion
work. Scholars continue to debate the correctness of tially excluding a great deal of female-oriented texts.
each term, and both are commonly employed. in order moreover, many named female medieval authors wrote
to clarify some of the issues, i have included an entry in prose, not poetry, and thus lie beyond the boundar-
on the idea of “early modern v. renaissance.” ies of this volume.
poEms anD poEts inCLuDED Pre-1600 Poetry of tHe
in choosing works and writers to include in this book, i
BritisH and CeltiC
consulted with all the major anthologies of literature of
world: a Brief overview
the period, including the Norton, longman, Broadview,
and Blackwell. i also consulted several high school texts. This book covers the medieval and early renaissance
Space constraints prevented the inclusion of everything periods of British and celtic poetry. For purposes of
one would wish; nonetheless, all the works and poets this volume, the celtic texts are grouped within the
that students are likely to encounter are included here. appropriate “medieval” or “renaissance” category, with-
The inclusion of irish, Scottish, and Welsh literature out further division. in english literature, however, the
has become standard classroom practice, and most medieval time period can be further broken down into
anthologies today include so-called companion pieces the Old english period and the middle english period,
or celtic contexts, which are also often available as with some scholars suggesting a third distinct division,
supplemental reading in electronic form, on sites dedi- the anglo-Norman period. The Old english period
cated to a specific classroom anthology. runs roughly from 700 c.e. to 1066 c.e., the date of the
it was particularly difficult to decide which Tudor Norman conquest. The anglo-Norman period, then,
works to include, as the sheer volume of poetry of that covers the immediate post-conquest time, or 1066–
period is staggering. medieval choices proved only 1154, when english went “underground,” ending
slightly less tricky, and these were further complicated with King Stephen’s death. The middle english period
by the availability of translations. most instructors teach traditionally ends with the death of King richard iii at
chaucer in the original middle english, as well as some Bosworth Field in 1485.
of the later authors, such as lydgate and hoccleve, The early renaissance is technically the Tudor era,
the Scottish chaucerian works, and medieval lyrics. named after the period’s ruling dynasty. after richard
however, earlier works—especially the anglo-Saxon, iii’s death, henry Tudor ascended the throne as King
Welsh, and irish texts—are almost wholly dependent henry Vii. he was followed by his second son, who
on modern english versions being available for student became King henry Viii (1509–1547), who in turn
consumption, and, therefore, some readily available was followed by each of his three children: edward
texts displaced others that are less accessible. at the Vi (1547–1553), mary i (1553–1558), and elizabeth
same time, however, some early middle english pieces i (1558–1603). When elizabeth died, the son of her
that were crucial to the development of the vernacular cousin mary, Queen of Scots, James Stuart, ascended the
tradition (such as Handlyng Synne) warranted inclu- throne as the first monarch of the new Stuart dynasty.
sion. Overall, i believe all of the included texts provide
essential insight into this period of literature. oLD EngLish poEtry at a gLanCE
Finally, personal inclination and modern politics The 30,000 lines of surviving Old english poetry
dictate that women poets and woman-centered texts are collected, for the most part, in four manuscripts:
be fairly represented. i have striven, therefore, to rep- The exeter Book, the Vercelli manuscript, the Junius
resent women authors fairly. among the complications manuscript, and the Nowell codex (also known as
of studying the medieval period is the lack of identifi- cotton Vittelius a.xv). These are all anthologies of
able authors. as a medievalist, i have long lamented texts collected after they were written, not assembled
the tendency for anthologies to prioritize those works for a specific purpose. No texts describing the art of
that can be attributed to a named author, thus poten- poetry survive from the Old english period. Scholars,
introDuCtion vii
however, have been able to piece together a general remain. Beowulf is the only surviving full-length Old
view of Old english meter. The basic rhyme scheme english epic that survives, but several examples of
was alliteration (repeated initial consonant sounds), a heroic poetry—battle poetry—survive, including The
system that relies upon the quantity of vowels, syllabic Battle of Maldon, The Battle of Brunanburh, The Fight
alteration, and prosody (rhythm). in 1885, eduard at Finnsburh, Widsith, and Waldere. Though epic and
Sievers outlined five distinct alliterative patterns within martial poetry present serious subject matter, there are
Old english verse. his research continues to be accept- occasional bouts of lightheartedness. a poetic device
ed today, particularly because each of his permutations commonly used within Old english poetry is the lito-
can be found in all of the older Germanic languages. tes, or dramatic understatement employed for comic
Old english verse lines are divided into half-lines by a or ironic effect. These understatements appear with
caesura, or pause. each half-line has two stressed syl- regularity in Beowulf and battle poems and occasion-
lables. The first stressed syllable of the second half-line ally in other types of poems, especially elegies and
alliterates with one or both of the stressed syllables of religious verse.
the first half-line; the second stressed syllable of the The elegy was the other major form of pre-christian
second half-line need not alliterate. poetry written in Old english. an elegy, or poetic
english and celtic literature had its beginnings in lament for the passing of someone dear, can be extend-
the oral tradition. Singers and storytellers held power- ed to the whole of society as well. Both The Wanderer
ful positions at court and were considered the memory and The Seafarer, for instance, relate the tale of the
keepers of the people: anglo-Saxon scops, irish filis, passing of the anglo-Saxon warrior culture as well as
Welsh bards, and Scottish makars. Some, such as an individual’s story. “The ruin” is an elegy about see-
Taliesin, a sixth-century Welsh poet, are identified in ing a destroyed city, possibly Bath. Sometimes these
their work. Four Old english poets are named specifi- poems are referred to as “epic songs,” especially when
cally within the works they produced: cædmon, Bede, the lament becomes all-encompassing, shifting the
alfred, and cynewulf. Some remain a mystery outside focus outward toward society.
of what has been discovered from their work. For lyrics present personal and emotional poetry—
example, there was obviously a scop named Deor about laments, complaints, and even love poetry. Several of
whom the poem of the same name was composed, but them, including “The Wife’s lament,” “The husband’s
nothing is known of him aside from the information message,” and “Wulf and eadwacer,” straddle the line
in the poem itself. Of course the vast majority of Old between elegy and lyric, as they are about loss and
english and celtic poets remain anonymous. exile but not specifically about death and changing
This rich tradition of oral-formulaic literature left fortune. There is no set stanzaic form for the lyrics,
its mark on written poetry. it is likely, for instance, which use an alliterative scheme.
that a poet was accompanied by a harp, perhaps being riddles, in which the subject is described in
plucked during the caesuras. Old english poems are ambiguous terms, reveal the anglo-Saxon fascination
marked by mnemonic devices such as repeated key with word play. indeed, true anglo-Saxon heroes were
phrases and descriptors (e.g., in Beowulf, the phrase expected to be almost as good with words as they
“Beowulf maþelode, bearn ecgþeow,” “Beowulf, son of were with weapons. in Old english poetry, “boasting”
ecgtheow, spoke”), as well as digressions—stories that is used to establish the identity and battle record of
enhance the central tale but also impart the history of a the hero, as well as serving as a promise of deeds yet
people. Because of this oral tradition, many of the sur- to come. There are two main types of boast: the gilph
viving poems were likely composed before they were (about past deeds) and the beot (tall tales; uncertain
finally written down. The celtic works derived from a outcome). Other poetic elements that demonstrate this
long history, and many were not written down until the intrigue with manipulating words include the epithet
12th century. a similar oral tradition is found within (renaming) and the kenning (metaphorical rephras-
the anglo-Saxon world, though a few more examples ing). all of these, however, reveal something entirely
viii introDuCtion
different about Old english itself—the lexicon (word of court and commerce. english was driven under-
bank) was limited, and although it expanded through ground. a mournful poem found in the Worcester
various means (loanwords, compounds, affixes, etc.), cathedral library, mS 174, records this passing: “many
that expansion was slow. related to the riddles are a of the teachers are being destroyed and the people
number of charms found scattered throughout various forthwith.” as the language changed, the Old english
Old english texts. These are generally pre-christian in verse forms died out too.
nature and serve a mystical purpose. literature survived in three languages: anglo-
as the society shifted towards christianity, a new Norman, the emerging middle english, and latin.
type of poet, the monastic writer, emerged, though The earliest poems in middle english tended to be
these, too, were generally unknown. Some of these awkward and rough but ably demonstrate linguistic
religious poems include poetic paraphrases of Old shifts. For example, The Ormulum, a vernacular work
Testament texts (Genesis, exodus, and Daniel), Guthlac of the middle-to-late 12th century, while poetically
a and B (two versions), Judith, christ and Satan, and lacking, is of tremendous importance to orthographers
The Fates of the apostles, among several others. an and grammarians. This massive work—20,000 lines
assortment of Psalms, creeds, prayers, and hymns also of exegetical homilies on christ—contains numerous
survives. cynewulf, author of the Old english poems authorial attempts to regularize spelling and grammar.
Juliana, Elene, Fates of the Apostles, and Ascension, Works such as this, in addition to the Anglo-Saxon
signed his poems using a runic signature—his name Chronicle, which continued into the 12th century,
spelled in Futhark—hidden in the manner of an show the linguistic adjustments brought on by the
acrostic. Other than his name, however, very little spread of Norman French.
is actually known about cynewulf. The poems were Thematically, the shift is away from epic and elegy
composed in the 8th or 9th century and signal a shift and toward romance and lyric. Still, the earliest
in Old english poetry from heroic or martial verse to romances often relied on vestiges of the Old english
meditative devotional pieces. Still, the biblical themes martial style. For example, one of the first is layamon’s
are presented in manners similar to the anglo-Saxon Brut, based on Wace’s Roman de Brut (1155), which
heroic poems. The dream vision poem Dream of the was written in anglo-Norman. Both were composed in
Rood, for instance, blends christian mysticism with england and based on Geoffrey of monmouth’s latin
Germanic heroism in a successful manner. a similar prose work Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the
occurrence can be found in “resignation,” an elegy Kings of Britain; ca. 1130–36). in each of these, the
about sin and forgiveness. kings of Britain descend from Brutus, aeneas’s grand-
Finally, some poetry was composed in latin or was son, and thus trace their lineage back to Troy. The
composed in imitation of a classical form. Of particu- country, Britain, is named after Brutus, and no distinc-
lar relevance are the physiologius poems, which are tion is made between the celtic Britons (the “British”)
adaptations from the latin bestiary tradition, includ- and the Germanic anglo-Saxons (the “english”); thus,
ing “The Phoenix,” “The Partridge,” “The Whale,” and arthur, once a Welsh prince and enemy of the Saxons,
“The Panther.” as well, there is a surviving transla- becomes one of the english people’s greatest heroes.
tion/adaptation of Boethius’s Consolation of Philosophy, romances recorded knightly adventures (“quests”)
generally attributed to alfred the Great. and honorable deeds, occasionally with a subordi-
nate element of love. Their main focus was chivalry,
miDDLE EngLish poEtry at a gLanCE although later romances show the impact of the idea of
With the Norman conquest in 1066, english lit- courtly love. These poems recorded the idealized ver-
erature was irrevocably changed, as was the english sion of the upper-class life: hunting, battles, defending
language. William the conqueror and his followers ladies, feasting, reading, playing chess, and other such
spoke Norman French, and as they replaced the exist- leisure activities. a more traditional division includes
ing anglo-Saxon nobility, French became the language the following: the matter of Britain (arthur and his
introDuCtion ix
knights); the matter of england (english and Germanic this alliterative style. another well-known work from
heroes); the matter of France (charlemagne); the this era is William langland’s Piers Plowman, a long,
matter of Greece and rome (alexander the Great and alliterative dream vision about the dangers of the
the Trojan War). each of these provided subject mat- world and concern with salvation.
ter for numerous tales of adventure and delight and, The best-known poet of the late 14th century is by
occasionally, for moral instruction. far Geoffrey chaucer, often called the “father of english
marie de France, a late 12th-century woman liv- poetry.” chaucer wrote in numerous genres, including
ing in england who wrote in Norman French, com- the ballade, lyric, dream vision, fable, fabliau, hagi-
posed a series of lais (minstrels’ tales) as well as a ography, romance, and others. his career culminated
number of fables and a life of St. Brendan. at around with the composition of the unfinished Canterbury
the same time, translations of chrétien de Troyes’s Tales, perhaps the greatest collection of stories ever
French arthurian romances, Erec et Enide, Cligès, Yvain, produced in english. This frame narrative examines
Lancelot, and Perceval (the first Grail quest story), the social and religious milieu of the 14th century in a
both changed the “matter of Britain” from legend into lively poetic manner and served to firmly (re)establish
literature, and also spread the popularity of the arthur the vernacular as a language worthy of great poetic
story. early english romances, such as King Horn (ca. achievement. chaucer’s friend and contemporary John
1225), Floris and Blancheflour (early 13th century), Gower wrote in all three major languages of the
Havelok the Dane (ca. 1300), were not as complex as day—latin, French, and middle english, and while
the French ones, although some, such as Sir Orfeo (ca. his achievement was perhaps not as great as chaucer’s,
1330), showed development and depth. These early he, too, amply demonstrated the flexibility of english
middle english works, however, served to reestablish verse and the ability of the english imagination.
the vernacular as a language worthy of reading and Debate poems, such as The Owl and the Nightingale
writing. as romances grew more popular, the conven- (early 13th century) gained some popularity but were
tions of courtly love, outlined in the 12th century by soon eclipsed by the rise of the lyric. lyrics grew from
the French writer andreas capellanus, permeated the ballads, servant songs, hymns, christmas carols, and
culture alongside the ideals of chivalry. the like. They can be divided into two categories—
english writing revived fully in english after 1360 secular and sacred. Secular ones tended to be bawdy,
and flowered during the reign of richard ii (1372–99). rowdy, and lively. religious lyrics focused on the
ricardian poetry often focused on confession and mysteries of religion, especially the Virgin mary and
redemption, a theme aided, no doubt, by the ravages christ’s life. The vast majority of these lyrics are anony-
of the Black Death (1348–50), during which more mous. Spiritual verse, aside from lyrics, include mystic
than one-third of europe’s population died. lyrics and poems by hermits such as richard rolle (ca. 1300–49)
religious verse dominated, although a few arthurian and various anonymous hagiographies, especially of
verse romances surfaced, including the stanzaic Morte virgin martyr-saints. most shared the common goals
d’Arthur and the alliterative Morte d’Arthur. of educating the unlearned to become closer to God,
The newly emergent middle english language though a few are more explicitly didactic.
was not as adaptable to alliterative verse, although Satiric poems, such as the Land of Cokaygne (late
the 14th century witnessed a revival thereof in an 13th century) were rare but usually well written.
adapted form. aside from the alliterative Morte d’ however, a form of social satire, the fabliau (bawdy
Arthur, the so-called 14th-century alliterative revival tale), grew quite popular in the 14th century and later.
encompassed such poems as Sir Gawain and the Green another form of satire is found in the beast fable,
Knight, an arthurian romance that combines spiri- found in adaptations of aesop’s fables but also in other
tual and chivalric values into a complex poem about forms, such as chaucer’s “The Nun’s Priest’s Tale.”
redemption. The Gawain-poet also wrote several other The 15th century witnessed a distinct falling off
poems—Pearl, Purity (Cleanness), and Patience—in in english verse and was dominated by the so-called