The effect of violent video game exposure on emotion modulation of startle and aggression

93 Pages·2014·1.05 MB·English

THE EFFECT OF VIOLENT VIDEO GAME EXPOSURE
ON EMOTION MODULATION OF STARTLE
AND AGGRESSION

A DISSERTATION IN
Psychology

Presented to the Faculty of the University
of Missouri-Kansas City in partial fulfillment of
The requirements for the degree

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

by
WADE RUSSELL ELMORE

B.A., University of Missouri-Kansas City, 2000
M.A., University of Missouri-Kansas City, 2011

Kansas City, Missouri
2014

iii
© 2014

WADE RUSSELL ELMORE

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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THE EFFECT OF VIOLENT VIDEO GAME EXPOSURE
ON EMOTION MODULATION OF STARTLE
AND AGGRESSION

Wade Russell Elmore, Candidate for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree

University of Missouri – Kansas City, 2014

ABSTRACT

Video games are quickly becoming the most widely accessible, and used, form of
entertainment, with those that contain violence have consistently been the most popular.
Building on previous research examining other forms of media, a growing body of literature
suggests a connection between violent video game exposure and increased aggression. The
General Aggression Model (GAM), has been developed to help explain this relationship, which
combines decades of aggression research into a single model. While the GAM describes several
routes to increased aggression there are only two cognitive routes. These cognitive routes are
desensitization (diminished natural negative response) and priming (pre-activation of neural
circuitry related to aggression), and the current study competitively tests these two routes in
relation to violent video game exposure (VVGE) using Emotion Modulated Startle (EMS).
The objective psychophysiological measure EMS assesses emotional state through either
potentiation, or inhibition of the startle response. The startle response is a negative-defensive
response, a negative emotional state enhances the startle response through priming, while a
positive emotional state diminishes the startle response. In the context of VVGE, if priming is
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the primary route to increased aggression, EMS would predict a primed startle response while
viewing violent-negative images, and therefore a larger startle response post exposure. If
desensitization is the primary route EMS would predict a diminished startle response reflecting
less negative priming by the emotional state elicited by VVGE.
In the present study EMS was used to assess the effects of both chronic and acute violent
video game exposure by comparing baseline and pre-post gameplay (violent, nonviolent) EMS
for participants with high and low violent video game exposure. A modified Taylor Competitive
Reaction Time Task (TCRTT) was used after completing the post-gameplay EMS session to
assess aggression.
The results of this study suggest that desensitization is the primary cognitive route to
increased aggression with decreased EMS responses to violent negative images associated with
chronic and acute VVGE. The relationship between desensitization and laboratory aggression
was also examined, finding an increased level of aggression exhibited after acute violent video
game exposure, but only for those with high chronic VVGE.

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APPROVAL PAGE

The faculty listed below, appointed by the Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences have
examined a dissertation titled “The Effect of Violent Video Game Exposure on Emotion
Modulation of Startle, and Aggression,” presented by Wade R. Elmore, candidate for the Doctor
of Philosophy degree, and certify that in their opinion it is worthy of acceptance.

Supervisory Committee

Diane L. Filion, Ph.D., Committee Chair
Department of Psychology

Robin Aupperle, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology

Kymberly Bennett, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology

Lark Lin, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology

Ricardo Marte, Ph.D.
Department of Sociology

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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. III

APPROVAL PAGE ....................................................................................................................... V

ILLUSTRATIONS .................................................................................................................... VIII

TABLES ....................................................................................................................................... IX

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1

Violent
 Video
 Games:
 The
 Need
 for
 Greater
 Understanding
 ........................................................................
 1

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ........................................................................................ 3

Violent
 Media
 Research:
 Building
 A
 Model
 For
 Increased
 Aggression

Through
 Violent
 Media
 Exposure
 ............................................................................................................................
 3

Violent
 Video
 Game
 Research
 ....................................................................................................................................
 9

Present
 Research
 ..........................................................................................................................................................
 29

Measures
 ..........................................................................................................................................................................
 31

Emotion
 Modulated
 Startle
 ...................................................................................................................................................
 31

Taylor
 Competitive
 Reaction
 Time
 Task
 .........................................................................................................................
 36

Hypotheses
 ......................................................................................................................................................................
 38

3. METHODS ........................................................................................................................... 40

Design
 ................................................................................................................................................................................
 40

Participants
 .....................................................................................................................................................................
 41

Measures
 ..........................................................................................................................................................................
 42

Pregame
 Questionnaires
 .........................................................................................................................................................
 42

Violent
 Video
 Game
 Exposure
 Estimate
 .....................................................................................................................
 42

Positive
 and
 Negative
 Affect
 Schedule
 ........................................................................................................................
 42

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Buss
 and
 Perry
 Aggression
 Questionnaire
 ................................................................................................................
 43

Physiological
 Measures
 of
 Violent
 Video
 Game
 Effects
 .............................................................................................
 43

Emotion
 Modulated
 Startle
 ..............................................................................................................................................
 43

Autonomic
 Arousal
 During
 Gameplay
 ........................................................................................................................
 44

Measures
 of
 Aggression
 ..........................................................................................................................................................
 44

Taylor
 Competitive
 Reaction
 Time
 Task
 ....................................................................................................................
 44

The
 Cold
 Pressor
 Task
 .......................................................................................................................................................
 45

Procedure
 ......................................................................................................................................................................................
 46

Planned
 Analyses
 .......................................................................................................................................................................
 47

4. ANALYSES AND RESULTS .............................................................................................. 48

5. DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................................... 59

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 68

VITA ............................................................................................................................................. 84

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ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1. Percent Change Differences by Exposure Group and Picture Valence ...............50
2. Change score for Negative Images by Video Game Exposure .............................51
3. Percent Change from Baseline by Gameplay Condition ...……………...............53
4. Aggression Type by Gameplay Condition ……………………...........................54
5. Mean Aggression by Violent Video Game Exposure ……………......................55

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TABLES
Table Page
1. Control Variables by Gameplay Condition ...……………………………………............48
2. Aggression Measure Means for Gameplay Condition by Exposure Group ….................55
3. Correlations between Violent Video Game Exposure and Three Measures of
Aggression..........................................................................................................................57
4. Correlations between Baseline Negative EMS Change and Three Measures of
Aggression ………………………………………………………………………......................58

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Violent Video Games: The Need for Greater Understanding
Video games as a form of entertainment have reached an unprecedented level of
accessibility and use in the United States. The birth of the video game industry is marked with
the introduction of PONG in 1972, a virtual take on table tennis, and the first highly popular
video game. From these humble beginnings, video games have gone through a metamorphosis.
Ascending from a fledgling specialty niche to the largest and most profitable segment of the
entertainment industry while also advancing from a ball bounced back and forth between two
paddles to an almost life like depiction of virtual environments with their own laws of physics,
cultures, and races. The increase in quality of video games, reflected in market share, has been,
and continues to be, fueled by advances in technology allowing for more realistic graphics, and
more complex and immersive environments for players to become engaged.
Although there are many genres of video game, including sports, puzzle and racing
games, the most popular games as assessed by sales are generally those with the highest level of
and most realistic violent depictions. The largest release day sales have consistently been for
video games with violent content, with the most recent, and largest, being the 2013 release of
Grand Theft Auto V having record breaking single day sales of $800 million, followed by Call of
Duty: Black Ops 2 and Grand Theft Auto IV with $500 million each. These three games are all
cutting-edge creating highly realistic and immersive experiences for the players and all rated “M
for Mature” citing violence, drug use and sexual content portrayed in the games (Garside, 2013).
The overall popularity of these ultra-violent video games is also apparent in that only five
percent of games rated by the entertainment software rating board were rated as “M for Mature,”
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