The Effect of Mirrors on Women's Body Image and Affective Responses to Yoga A Dissertation ...

199 Pages·2015·4.5 MB·English

The Effect of Mirrors on Women’s Body Image
and Affective Responses to Yoga

A Dissertation
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA
BY

Amanda L. Frayeh

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Adviser: Beth A. Lewis, PhD

May 2015
© Amanda L. Frayeh 2015
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Acknowledgements

Completion of this dissertation would not have been possible without the
encouragement, generosity, and guidance of several individuals. First and foremost, I
would like to thank my adviser, Dr. Beth Lewis, for being an incredible mentor and role
model. When I first spoke with you on the phone about applying to the University of
Minnesota, I was struck by your sincerity, warmth, and passion for research. I am in awe
of your ability to not only juggle countless roles, but to also help your advisees succeed.
Thank you, Beth, for your positive feedback, and for convincing me to not give up in the
face of adversity!
I would also like to thank Dr. Jo Ann Buysse, Dr. Maureen Weiss, and Dr. Diane
Wiese-Bjornstal for serving on my committee. Your constructive feedback and questions
have challenged me to grow as a scholar. I am grateful for your willingness to meet with
me to discuss research and career interests. Thank you again for reading and providing
feedback on my dissertation, and for supporting me throughout my doctoral studies. I
would also like to thank Dr. Anne Cox and Dr. Dianne Neumark-Sztainer for their
encouragement and advice regarding yoga and body image research.
Hannah Strom, I cannot thank you enough for your help! Your enthusiasm and
work ethic truly inspired me throughout this research project, and I am so thankful for all
of the time that you put into preparing the class script, teaching the classes, entering data,
and “Journal Clubbing.” Thank you for encouraging me to step outside of my comfort
zone to do Yoga Teacher Training. You will continue to touch many lives as a yoga
instructor, and I am excited to see where your next journey takes you!
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Many thanks to my colleagues — Alison Phillips, Lauren Billing, and Torrie
Hazelwood — for participating in the pilot session. Your feedback and insights were
invaluable for improving the yoga class and survey procedures. Thank you to my
officemates — Alison and Andrea Stark —for answering all of my random questions
about data entry and analyses. Many thanks to Hayley Russell, who answered research-
related questions from afar. Thank you, Chelsea Karkula and Brittany Kelly, for watching
hours of yoga class footage with posture checklists in hand. Also, thank you to Katie
Schuver for your research and yoga expertise.
I am sincerely thankful for the support of my husband, Farah. Thank you for
sitting through countless presentation practices, for giving pep talks, and for being a
calming, joyful force in my life. I could not imagine making it through the Minnesota
winters and dissertation writing without you!
Finally, thank you to my friends and family for your unconditional love and
support. Thank you to my soccer teams and to everyone at Yoga Sol and Radiant Life
Yoga for being such caring, tight-knit communities. Mom, thank you for encouraging me
to follow my dreams. Dad, thank you for keeping me grounded. Dan and Liz, thank you
for helping me navigate the challenges of graduate school.
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Abstract
Yoga is a promising strategy for promoting positive body image. However, certain social-
environmental variables might undermine yoga’s benefits. Previous research indicates
that mirrors alter women’s psychological responses to exercise, but the effects of
practicing yoga with mirrors are unknown. The present study examined the effect of
mirrors on women’s state body image, affect, and self-efficacy in a yoga class. A
secondary aim was to examine the effect of mirrors on social comparison and
mindfulness. Potential moderators were also examined. Ninety-seven college-aged
females were randomly assigned to complete a 60-minute beginner level yoga class in
either a mirrored or non-mirrored setting. Surveys were completed prior to and
immediately after class. As hypothesized, the non-mirrored condition had significantly
lower state social physique anxiety (SPA) after yoga than the mirrored condition. The
mirrored condition reported significantly higher appearance-based social comparison than
the non-mirrored condition, and social comparison mediated the relationship between
mirrors and state SPA. There were no significant moderator effects. Mirrors appeared to
lead to higher levels of state SPA in the mirrored vs. non-mirrored condition by fostering
appearance comparisons with other participants and the yoga instructor. To encourage
internal body awareness and minimize appearance comparisons in yoga classes,
instructors in mirrored studios may want to consider structuring classes so students face
away from mirrors, and reminding students to focus on how poses feel rather than how
they look. Additional research examining the longer-term psychological effects of
regularly practicing yoga with mirrors is merited.
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Table of Contents
List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii
Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1
Exercise and Body Image ............................................................................................... 2
Yoga and Body Image .................................................................................................... 2
Yoga and Mirrors ............................................................................................................ 3
Purpose and Hypotheses ................................................................................................. 5
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature .................................................................................... 9
Objectification Theory .................................................................................................. 11
Social Comparison and the Circle of Objectification ................................................... 12
Self-Objectification: Developmental Considerations ................................................... 13
Exercise Participation and Trait Body Image: Meta-Analytic Findings ....................... 15
Factors Related to Exercise and Trait Body Image ...................................................... 16
Acute Exercise and State Body Image .......................................................................... 17
Mirrors .......................................................................................................................... 24
Yoga: Mind-Body Exercise .......................................................................................... 39
Modern Postural Yoga in the U.S. ................................................................................ 40
Yoga and Body Image .................................................................................................. 42
Yoga and Affect ............................................................................................................ 47
Yoga and Mindfulness .................................................................................................. 51
Yoga and Mirrors .......................................................................................................... 53
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Summary and Conclusions ........................................................................................... 54
Chapter 3: Method ............................................................................................................ 57
Overview of Design ...................................................................................................... 57
Participants and Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria ............................................................... 57
Measures ....................................................................................................................... 59
Procedures ..................................................................................................................... 72
Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 78
Chapter 4: Results ............................................................................................................. 81
Recruitment ................................................................................................................... 81
Demographics ............................................................................................................... 81
Personal Traits and Potential Confounding Variables .................................................. 83
Primary Aim: State Body Image, Self-Efficacy, and Affect ........................................ 86
Secondary Aim: Appearance Comparison and Mindfulness ........................................ 89
Tertiary Aim: Moderator Analyses ............................................................................... 90
Exploratory Aim 1: Relationships between Post-Test State Measures ......................... 95
Exploratory Aim 2: Intentions ...................................................................................... 97
Exploratory Aim 3: Mirror Gazing ............................................................................... 99
Exploratory Aim 4: Mirror Preferences ........................................................................ 99
Post-Hoc Exploratory Aim: Mediation Analysis ........................................................ 100
Chapter 5: Discussion ..................................................................................................... 102
Primary Aim................................................................................................................ 102
Secondary Aim............................................................................................................ 109
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Tertiary Aim................................................................................................................ 112
Exploratory Aims ........................................................................................................ 113
Theoretical Implications ............................................................................................. 116
Strengths of Study Design .......................................................................................... 118
Study Limitations ........................................................................................................ 119
Future Research Directions ......................................................................................... 121
Practical Implications.................................................................................................. 122
Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 123
References ....................................................................................................................... 125
Appendices ……………………………………………………………………………..147
Appendix A: IRB Approval Form .......................................................................... 147
Appendix B: Recruitment Flyer .............................................................................. 149
Appendix C: On-Line Screening Questionnaire ..................................................... 150
Appendix D: Consent Form .................................................................................... 153
Appendix E: Pre-Test Surveys ................................................................................ 156
Appendix F: Standardized Class Sequence............................................................. 167
Appendix G: Yoga Instructor Script ....................................................................... 171
Appendix H: Post-Test Only Surveys ..................................................................... 183
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List of Tables
Table 1. Methods of Recruitment ..................................................................................... 57
Table 2. Measures and Data Collection Time Points ........................................................ 61
Table 3. Participant Characteristics .................................................................................. 82
Table 4. Yoga Experience ................................................................................................. 83
Table 5. Correlation Matrix for Personal Traits and Pre-Test State Measures ................. 85
Table 6. Descriptive Statistics and Effect Sizes for Self-Efficacy over Time by
Condition .............................................................................................................87
Table 7. Descriptive Statistics and Effect Sizes for Self-Efficacy over Time by
Condition………………………………………………………………..…………… 88
Table 8. Descriptive Statistics and Effect Sizes for Affect over Time by Condition ....... 89
Table 9. Regression Analyses Testing Moderators of State Body Image ......................... 91
Table 10. Regression Analyses Testing Moderators of State Social Physique Anxiety ... 92
Table 11. Regression Analyses Testing Moderators of State Self-Objectification .......... 94
Table 12. Correlation Matrix for Post-Test State Measures ............................................. 96
Table 13. Regression Analyses: Intentions to Engage in Yoga ........................................ 98
Table 14. Personal Characteristics by Typical Mirror Preference Group ....................... 100
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List of Figures
Figure 1. Flow of participants from September 2014 – November 2014. ....................... 59
Figure 2. Mediator analysis results ................................................................................. 101