The Effect of Gender on Spatial Ability and Spatial Reasoning Among Students in Grades 2-8

147 Pages·2017·1.2 MB·English

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THE EFFECT OF GENDER ON SPATIAL ABILITY AND SPATIAL REASONING AMONG
STUDENTS IN GRADES 2-8

by
Sharon Whitley Morris
Liberty University

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education

Liberty University
2018
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THE EFFECT OF GENDER ON SPATIAL ABILITY AND SPATIAL REASONING AMONG
STUDENTS IN GRADES 2-8
by Sharon Whitley Morris

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education

Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA
2018

APPROVED BY:
D. J. Mattson, Ed.D., Committee Chair
Crystal P. Ange, Ed.D., Committee Member
JoAnna P. Oster, Ed.D., Committee Member
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine gender differences across three types of spatial ability;
namely, spatial perception, spatial visualization, and mental rotation in conjunction with working
memory. The study utilized a causal-comparative research design involving group comparisons.
In this design researchers collect data about variables that they have conceptualized to be in a
causal relationship to each other, but there is no intervention as in experimental research.
Participants in this study included approximately 200 students in second through eighth grades at
one public school and one public charter school, all located in the same school district/county.
Spatial ability was measured by four categories of spatial relations tests based upon spatial
cognition research proposing that spatial cognition is comprised of “three separable dimensions:”
the Mental Folding Test for Children (spatial visualization), an adaptation of the Differential
Aptitude Test: Space Relations (DAT: SR), Mental Rotation for Children, an adaptation of the
Mental Rotations Test (MRT), Manikin Test (spatial orientation and transformation), and Mr.
Peanut Task (visuo-spatial working memory). The resultant scores were used as measures of
mathematical achievement and cognitive ability. Data were analyzed using MANOVA and
ANOVA statistical analysis. Results suggested that mostly non-significant differences exist for
spatial visualization abilities between males and females. The sole example of a significant
difference between male and females was noted on the Mr. Peanut test in the fourth and fifth
grades, accompanied with a partial Eta Squared (ղ2) of .10.
Keywords: Spatial ability, spatial visualization ability, spatial orientation ability, gender
differences, elementary students, middle school students
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Dedication
To: Almighty God and His Son, Jesus Christ: Sola Gratia, by grace alone. You created me
to love learning and thirst for knowledge. It is by your power and infinite source of strength
which provided stamina that fueled my efforts to complete this dissertation journey. No
struggle has come my way apart from Your purpose, Your presence, and Your permission.

To the past: My grandmother, Madeline W. Keech, whose “voice” was not always heard,
but one who gave of herself in a multitude of ways. More importantly, she transmitted the
example of courage, fortitude, and perseverance for this young girl’s heart to glean and
absorb by witnessing myriad acts of unselfishness which, in turn, provided these necessary
traits to draw upon at anxious times.

To the present: My children, Justin Chacy & Courtney Brett for providing such distinct
meaning and direction for my life

To the future: My granddaughters, Madeline Brett & Gemma Lucy, with the hope that as
young girls and women their “voice” will be heard.
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Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge my husband, Dennis, for his understanding and patience
throughout this dissertation journey; for my children, Justin and Courtney, and their spouses,
Maria and Jackson, in supporting my efforts, especially during the last several years; and my
parents, Luke and Betty Whitley, for instilling Christian values and morals that created a firm
foundation for my life.
I would like to extend thanks to my committee chair, Dr. D. J. Mattson, for his continual
support, wise counsel, and valuable critiques and suggestions for improvement during this
dissertation process. I have appreciated his reflection and thought-provoking comments in
seeking to understand the nuts-and-bolts of the research. I would like to thank my committee
members, Dr. Crystal P. Ange and Dr. Joanna P. Oster for their willingness to serve on the
committee, and their support shown to me along this pathway. Special thanks to Dr. Scott
Watson, Research Consultant, for his timely feedback and recommendations to facilitate this
research study. Finally, many thanks to Dr. Dawn Blasko, professor at Penn State Erie, and one
of the developers of Visualization Assessment and Training.
I would like to express my appreciation to Mrs. Pamela Hodges for her support in
providing professional opportunities to advance my continued quest for learning.
A personal acknowledgement goes to friends, Daphne R., Pam C., Nelson G. and
Dr. Jim Buck for their continued assistance and interest in providing encouragement,
reassurance, and inspiration. A debt of gratitude for my pastor, Rev. David Pierce, for his
timely, thought-provoking sermons and discussions for practical application in my life.
I would like to acknowledge and thank the specific school districts where the data
was collected, and for allowing me to conduct my research and your readiness to provide
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support when applicable. Special thanks go to the superintendent, curriculum director, and
technology personnel for their willingness and cooperation in conducting the research. I
would like to thank the principals, teachers, media technology personnel at each specific
research site that supported me in this journey. Their willingness to participate, and
motivation to provide feedback made the completion of this research an enjoyable
experience. Finally, without the students who tested, there would be no study. Hopefully,
your efforts will impact future students in positive and productive ways.
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Table of Contents
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 3
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... 4
Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. 5
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... 11
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. 12
List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 15
Overview ......................................................................................................................... 15
Background……………………………………………………………………………..15
Problem Statement .......................................................................................................... 21
Purpose Statement ........................................................................................................... 21
Significance of the Study ................................................................................................ 22
Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 22
Identification of Variables ............................................................................................... 23
Definitions ....................................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................... 28
Overview………………………………………………………………………………..28
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................... 32
Experiential Learning Theory ............................................................................. 32
Cognitive Learning Theory ............................................................................... 32
Stereotype Threat Theory .................................................................................. 33
Relationship of Theories to Study Context........................................................ 36
Related Literature ........................................................................................................... 37
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Historical Summary .............................................................................................. 37
Gender Differences ............................................................................................... 40
Developmental Differences .................................................................................. 44
Can Spatial Ability Be Improved? ........................................................................ 48
The Effects of Spatial Visualization on Mathematics Achievement .................... 52
Current Research .................................................................................................. 54
Strategies That Are In Place ................................................................................. 57
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 59
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS ................................................................................................. 61
Overview ......................................................................................................................... 61
Problem and Purpose of the Study .................................................................................. 61
Design.............................................................................................................................. 62
Rationale .............................................................................................................. 62
Design Elements ................................................................................................. 63
Research Questions and Null Hypotheses ....................................................................... 63
Grade Levels Two and Three ............................................................................. 63
Grade Levels Four and Five ............................................................................... 64
Grade Levels Six and Eight ................................................................................ 65
Grades Two Through Eight Considered at Once................................................ 66
Participants and Setting .................................................................................................... 66
School One .......................................................................................................... 67
School Two .......................................................................................................... 67
Instrumentation.................................................................................................................. 68
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Manikin Test ......................................................................................................... 70
Mental Paper-Folding Test ................................................................................... 71
Mr. Peanut Test..................................................................................................... 72
Mental Rotation Test ............................................................................................ 73
Procedures ......................................................................................................................... 75
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 77
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS ..................................................................................................... 81
Overview .......................................................................................................................... 81
Research Questions and Null Hypotheses ........................................................................ 82
Results .............................................................................................................................. 84
Summary .......................................................................................................................... 90
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION............................................................................................... 93
Overview .......................................................................................................................... 93
Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 93
Summary of the Results ....................................................................................... 93
Research Question One ....................................................................................... 94
Research Question Two ....................................................................................... 94
Research Question Three ..................................................................................... 94
Research Question Four ....................................................................................... 95
Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 95
Relationship to Empirical and Theoretical Literature .......................................... 95
Research Question One ........................................................................................ 96
Research Question Two ........................................................................................ 97
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Research Question Three ...................................................................................... 98
Research Question Four........................................................................................ 99
Learning development and malleability of spatial skills .................................... 100
Socio-Cultural Factors ....................................................................................... 102
Implications .................................................................................................................... 103
Empirical Implications ....................................................................................... 106
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 108
Limitations ..................................................................................................................... 108
Recommendations for Future Research ......................................................................... 110
Summary ........................................................................................................................ 112
References ................................................................................................................................... 113
APPENDIX A: REQUEST USAGE OF ONLINE ASSESSMENTS FORM ........................... 138
APPENDIX B: SCHOOL DISTRICT PARTICIPANT ASSENT FORM ................................ 139
APPENDIX C: SCHOOL PARTICIPANT ASSENT FORM ................................................... 140
APPENDIX D: IRB APPROVAL FORM .................................................................................. 141
APPENDIX E: EXPLANATION OF STUDY LETTER—SITE 1 ........................................... 142
APPENDIX F: EXPLANATION OF STUDY LETTER-SITE 2 .............................................. 143
APPENDIX G: PARENT/GUARDIAN CONSENT FORM ..................................................... 144
PARENT/GUARDIAN CONSENT FORM ............................................................................... 144
APPENDIX H: CHILD ASSENT FORM ................................................................................ 146
ASSENT OF CHILD TO PARTICIPATE IN A RESEARCH STUDY .................................... 146
APPENDIX I: REQUEST PERMISSION TO USE TEST IMAGES FORM………………...147