The Economic Emergence of Women

262 Pages·2005·6.29 MB·English

by  Barbara R. Bergmann (auth.)

The Economic Emergence of Women
This page intentionally left blank
The Economic Emergence of Women
Second Edition
Barbara R.Bergmann
THEECONOMICEMERGENCEOFWOMEN
© Barbara R. Bergmann, 2005.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 2005 978-0-312-21941-3
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any
manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief
quotations embodied in critical articles or reviews.
First published in 2005 by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN™
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 and
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England RG21 6XS
Companies and representatives throughout the world.
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave
Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd.
Macmillan®is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom
and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European
Union and other countries.
ISBN 978-0-312-23243-6 ISBN 978-1-4039-8258-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1057/9781403982582
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Bergmann, Barbara R.
The economic emergence of women / by Barbara R. Bergamann.—
Second ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Women—United States—Economic conditions. 2. Women—
Employment—United States. 3. Sex discrimination against women—
United States. 4. Housewives—United States. I. Title.
HQ1426.B429 2005
305.43(cid:2)0973—dc22 2005040556
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Design by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India.
First edition: September 2005
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To my mother Nellie and my daughter Sarah and
the long line of women,going back to cave days,
from whom we three are descended
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Acknowledgments viii
1. The Breakup of the Sex-Role Caste System 1
2. Why Did Women Emerge? 11
3. The Social Factors: Births, Schools, Divorces, Ideas 25
4. “Women’s Place” in the Labor Market 41
5. Occupational Segregation by Sex: The Root of
Women’s Disadvantage 61
6. Setting the Pay for the Jobs Women Hold 85
7. Government Action Against Discrimination 103
8. Affirmative Action and Pay Equity 119
9. The Occupation of Housewife 133
10. Lone Parents and their Poverty 153
11. Keeping House: The Economics and Politics of
Family Care 175
12. “Industrializing” Housework and Child Care 189
13. A Policy Agenda for the Sex-Role Revolution 209
Appendix 219
Notes 231
Index 251
Acknowledgments
I have profited over the years from the ideas of Heidi Hartmann, Suzanne
Helburn, Nancy Folbre, Marianne Ferber, Mary Gray, Myra Strober, and
Harriet Presser, and sometimes also from hearing their opposition to my
ideas. Fred Bergmann has also been a source of ideas and criticisms, besides
making possible 40 years of good living, on which all else has been based.
I have learned from Sarah and David, my children, and Sarah has con-
tributed the figure in chapter 4 to this book. Generous contribution of the
data in table 11.1 was made by Liana Sayer, and of research assistance by
Jennifer Cohen. Their help is gratefully acknowledged. This book had a
globalized production. Copy editing, design, and proofing were done by
Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India.
1
The Breakup of the Sex-Role Caste System
The ancient system of sex roles, under which men were assigned a monopoly
of access to money and the public sphere, and mature women were restricted
to the home, came under severe attack over the course of the last century
and a half in most developed countries. The social and economic forces
behind the release of women from obligatory domesticity are far from spent;
they continue to reinforce each other and grow stronger. An economic cata-
clysm or a wave of religious fanaticism such as occurred in Iran and
Afghanistan could bring a regression, but barring such upheavals, women
will not retreat back into domesticity. On the contrary, the emergence of
women into the money economy and into larger roles in the society will
probably go further, both in the developed and in the developing countries.
The worldwide liberation of women from a dependence on men for
money to live on, and the opening of opportunities to lead whatever lives
their talents and inclinations permit deserves recognition as a revolution in
human affairs. As an extension of freedom to people who previously had
little or none, it surely ranks with the French or American revolutions in
historic importance. Not everyone welcomes the changes that revolution
has wrought. Some despair at what they see as the ruination of a system
that provided a warm and comfortable home life. They mourn the passing
of the sheltered existence that most women and children had. But many
women and young girls relish their freedoms and opportunities. Many
mothers and fathers are delighted that their daughters have a chance to
express their talents and will be able, if they wish, to avoid complete
dependence on the goodwill of a “breadwinner.”
A majority of women in the developed countries have by now emerged
from the home, but many habits, policies, and institutions survive from the
era when all mature women were expected to be lifelong housewives, and all
male workers were expected by their employers to have the services of a full-
time housewife at home. The reduced supply of “caring labor” contributed
by family members—child care and elder care—has yet to be addressed by
public policy. Many husbands of employed women still expect to be waited
on at home as before. Domestic violence continues to be a severe problem.