The Early Archaic to Middle Archaic Transition in Florida

23 Pages·2012·3.05 MB·English

the eArlY ArChAiC to middle ArChAiC trANSitioN iN FloridA:
AN ArgumeNt For diSCoNtiNuitY
miChael K. FaughT1 and James C. waggoner, Jr.2
1703 Truett Dr., Tallahassee, FL 32303
2. 1997-September, 2009
In Florida, “Kirk” points, in particular “Kirk Serrated,” points rather than excavated from good contexts…,” and
have become the key component of an archaeological narrative Austin (2001:35-36) concluded that the lack of Kirk sites with
that alleges unbroken human occupational and cultural radiocarbon ages in the Hillsborough drainage is partly due
continuity from late Pleistocene (Clovis-related) Paleoindians to the paucity of excavations and archaeological unfamiliarity
(PI) to middle Holocene Middle Archaic people along a with the chronozone. These opinions are necessary because
simplified series of diagnostic points that include (from oldest there is no good continuous record of deposition in Florida
to most recent): Clovis - Suwannee/Simpson - Bolen (Side that would confirm a cultural historical connection between
and Corner Notched) - Kirk Serrated - Florida Archaic the two culture historical groups, as we will show.
Stemmed - Florida Archaic Stemmed - Newnan. This This “Kirk” problem has interwoven themes, including
sequence of changing projectile points was first outlined by population dynamics, variable artifact morphologies, inferred
Bullen (1975:6; Farr 2006:26), and it is presented as narrative cultural-historical relationships, a cacophony of typological
in the two textbooks on Florida archaeology (Milanich nomenclatures, and, not to mention, entrenched doctrines.
1994:63-64; Milanich and Fairbanks 1980:48-51; 54), as well We tackle the problem by outlining evidence for both culture
as in the culture history background section of most research histories, showing with a robust sample of radiocarbon assays
reports (e.g., Austin 2006:9; Daniel and Wisenbaker 1987:151; that there are no sites indicating the presence of people in
Tesar and Jones 2004:28-30). Florida between, roughly 9000 B.P. (~ 10,200 cal B.P.), or
As we expand below, the Clovis - Suwannee/Simpson a little later, and ca. 8,000 B.P. (~ 9000 cal B.P.), or a little
- Bolen (Side and Corner Notched) part of the narrative earlier, a period of more than 1200 calibrated years. We offer
can be buttressed with abundant artifact similarities, several two stratigraphic situations with lacunae between PI-EA and
stratigraphic occurrences, and some radiocarbon ages. MA chipped stone assemblages, and we note a weak record
Likewise, the Kirk Serrated - Florida Archaic Stemmed of overlap in Florida Master Site File (FMSF) data that is
(Levy/Alachua/Putnam /Marion) - Newnan part of the consistent with our thesis. We discuss the facts that corner-
narrative can be shown to have stratigraphic examples with notched “Kirk” points overlap in time and morphology with
radiocarbon ages and abundant associated artifacts of bone, Bolen notched points, and that stemmed “Kirk Serrated”
wood, and fabric; the early part of this sequence is characterized points in Florida are of many diverse shapes not always
by peat/pond cemeteries, while the latter is marked by burials consistent with the definitions of “Kirk Serrated” intended by
in sand/shell. What we are calling into question is the presence either Joffre Coe (1964:71-72) or Ripley Bullen (1975:37).
of people in Florida between the Early Archaic (EA) and Furthermore, the specimens of interest are few, and mostly
Middle Archaic (MA) culture histories, between roughly 9000 known from later MA contexts, not earlier PI-EA ones where
and 8000 B.P. (~10,200 and ~9000 cal B.P.) as well as the they are expected.
corollary that there is an ancestor/descendant relationship We infer from all of this that there is a lack of evidence
between the two culture histories that is linked by Florida’s from “good contexts” because there is a lack of “good contexts”
“Kirk Serrated” points. with evidence for occupational and cultural continuity, and that
We are not the first to notice a possible paucity of post-9000 in this case the absence of evidence is evidence of the absence
B.P. “Kirk” sites in Florida. Thirty years ago paleontologist S. people. We also argue that the two different culture groups
David Webb (1981:116) proposed that these early Holocene were not culturally related based on different characteristics
populations were seeking resources to replace the megafauna of chipped stone industries and burial traditions, regardless of
that had died off at the end of the Pleistocene, and that they were whether or not there was a temporal hiatus between the two.
probably at the coastlines of those times, on paleolandscapes
that are now underwater on the continental shelf. Widmer Evidence from Florida for Paleoindians and Early
(1988:64-6), noting the lack of “Kirks” in southern Florida, Archaic People: Clovis - Suwannee/Simpson -
offered that there were no people farther south during this time Bolen (Side and Corner Notched)
because of environmental deterioration. Milanich (1994:63-
64) related that “…stone tools believed to be early Archaic In Florida the sequence for late Pleistocene and early
have been surface collected with early Archaic projectile Holocene human population continuity is buttressed with
vol. 65 (3) The Florida anThropologisT spTember 2012
154 The Florida anThropologisT 2012 vol. 65(3)
relatively abundant evidence from isolated finds of diagnostic Florida include two worked stakes on the edge of the basin that
points, including fluted points, unfluted lanceolate points, drops into the sinkhole at Little Salt Springs, averaging 9550 +
and both side- and corner-notched points, stratigraphic 95 B.P. (11,200 – 10,550 cal B.P.; Clausen et al. 1979). To date,
occurrences, and some associated radiocarbon ages (Dunbar no diagnostic chipped stone artifacts, especially projectile
1991, 2006; Dunbar and Hemmings 2004; Thulman 2007; see points, have been reported from there, but wood, antler, and
Table 1). In addition, we have compiled and illustrated a list bone artifacts are known. Gifford and Koski (2011) recently
of radiocarbon ages that include those recently published by published an age estimate on wood associated with a worked
Dasovich and Doran (2011), as well as some others that allow antler artifact from the basin at Little Salt Springs of 9240 +
illumination of the sequence of radiocarbon dated PI-EA sites 60 (10,570 – 10,250 cal B.P.). Another age estimate on an oak
and their associated point types. mortar at Little Salt Springs of 9080 + 250 B.P. (10,600 - 9800
Even though the tortoise shell and stick-like stake at cal B.P.) is intriguing, but it has a large standard deviation that
Little Salt Springs (Clausen et al. 1979) are often referred to reduces its usefulness. At the Wakulla Springs Lodge Site,
as pre-Clovis in Florida, unequivocal pre-Clovis ages come the Bolen occupation is secure by a two age average of 9300
from Page/Ladson (site numbers are given in Table 1 and + 28 B.P. (10,570 - 10,430 cal B.P.; Tesar and Jones 2004).
Appendix I, site locations in Figure 1a, all radiocarbon ages These ages came from charcoal from levels 10 and 11 in the
listed in Appendix I). At Page/Ladson a few chipped stone 2004 excavations. Three other estimates made on charcoal
artifacts and a possible cut marked mastodon tusk were found from these levels were rejected by Tesar and Jones (2004:155-
in a securely dated geologic bed with ages averaging 12,415 156), including two of approximately 4000 B.P., which are
+ 37 B.P. (roughly 14,400 cal B.P.1; Dunbar 2006; Kendrick egregiously young. The other, on charcoal and dated to 8710
2006; Webb and Dunbar 2006). A younger estimate consistent + 40 (9700 - 9560 cal B.P.), was associated with red ochre that
with ages expected for Clovis of 11,050 + 50 B.P. (13,090 – may be indicative of late Bolen presence, but it is the certainly
12,860 cal B.P.) came from an ivory foreshaft found in Sloth most recent among the radiometric assays in this sample.
Hole (Hemmings 2004; Waters and Stafford 2007). Diagnostic In addition to the diagnostic projectile points referenced
fluted points were found there by early diver collectors as well. here, associated tools include a plethora of unifacial and
Unfortunately, there are no radiometric ages for Suwannee bifacial chipped stone tools with regular shapes, as well as
and Simpson unfluted lanceolates in Florida, but stratigraphic bone and ivory components (Daniel et al. 1986; Dunbar et al.
examples consistent with the presumed sequence include 1989; Hemmings 2004; Purdy 1981; Thulman 2006a). There
fluted and unfluted lanceolates associated at Paradise Park is little disagreement that these data support the received
(a.k.a Silver Spring), Simpson unfluted lanceolates at Ryan narrative. Finally, a cremation burial was found at Wakulla
Harley, and Suwannee and Simpson unfluted lanceolates along Springs Lodge that included a capping of red ochre (Tesar
with Bolen Side and Corner Notched points together at Lake and Jones 2004:81-82). This is the only such example from
Helen Blazes, Darby Springs; Wakulla Springs, and Harney Florida associated with Bolen, or earlier artifacts. This method
Flats (Balsillie et al. 2006; Daniel and Wisenbaker 1987, 1989; of disposing of the dead by fire, also known from Kirk Corner
Dolan and Allen 1961; Dunbar et al. 2005; Hemmings 1975; Notched contexts at Ice House Bottom (Chapman 1977:112-
Neil 1958; 1964; Purdy 2008:64). 115), contrasts with burials in water as revealed at Windover
Two sites in Florida have produced the earliest Holocene more than a thousand calibrated years later, as describe below.
ages for notched points. The “Bolen surface” (stratigraphic
Unit 5) at Page/Ladson produced 3 contemporaneous ages Evidence in Florida for the Middle Archaic:
that averaged 9958 + 36 B.P. (11,500 – 11,250 cal B.P.) with Kirk Serrated - Florida Archaic Stemmed (Levy/Alachua/
notched points, antler components, and chipped stone tools for Putnam Marion) - Newnan
working wood (Carter and Dunbar 2006; Dunbar et al. 1988;
Peres 1997). Site 8LE2105 also produced notched points and a In Florida, the sequence of diagnostic MA points
number of formal chipped stone tools with 2 contemporaneous associated with radiocarbon ages that indicate human
ages averaging 9870 + 38 B.P. (11,360 – 11,200 cal B.P.) population continuity and evolution is somewhat problematic
(Carter and Dunbar 2006; Faught et al. 2003; Hornum et al. because point shapes do not change much over millennia and
1996). The Cutler Fossil site (a distinct outlier at the most because there was less emphasis, in general, among Florida’s
southern portions of the peninsula) produced fragments of MA people on chipped stone items, a clear difference with
notched points and a single estimated age of 9670 + 130 their PI-EA predecessors. Nevertheless, and in addition to Kirk
(11,350 – 10,550 cal B.P.; Carr 1986). An age consistent with Serrated points (discussed below), the diagnostic stemmed
these two was calculated by Dunbar (2006:498) by averaging points are Levy and Alachua (rectangular based) and Putnam
organic samples associated with Burial 1 at the 13-m ledge and Marion (round based), projectile points also referred to
at Warm Mineral Springs. In addition to these sites with by the catch-all “Florida Archaic Stemmed” or FAS points.
radiocarbon ages, excavations at other sites have produced These diagnostics occur throughout the MA sequence and into
notched points as the only early diagnostics. These include the Late Archaic (LA) as well as the later ceramic times (Neil
Bolen Bluff, Jeannie’s Better Back, and Ross Bay (Austin and 1958; Tesar 1980). Well-made Newnan points occur after the
Mitchell 1999; Bullen 1958; Carr 1986; Gramly 1994). earliest examples of the FAS, and they also continue into the
Somewhat later radiocarbon ages indicating people in Late Archaic (LA).
FaughT and waggoner earlY To middle arChaiC TransiTion 155
A sequence of radiocarbon-dated MA sites is presented in et al. 1991; Sassaman 2003). There are several MA sites with
Figure 2 and Table 1, and with this, we can better discuss their ages around 6000 B.P. (~ 6840 cal B.P.); these are the result of
associated point types (Figures 1b and 2). The age estimate work along the middle St Johns River by the National Parks
at Windover on human bone of 8120 + 70 B.P. (9250 - 8990 Service and the Laboratory of Southeastern Archaeology at
cal B.P.) is the next earliest age, after the last of the Bolen the University of Florida. Newnan projectile points occur with
ages, representing clear evidence for the presence of people these later sites, as do other FAS types.
and what we consider the earliest of MA sites2. Figure 2 shows Gauthier, Diamond Dairy, and Johnson Lake are sites
that the Windover radiocarbon samples range over more than with FAS points from excavated contexts. Unfortunately,
a thousand years without other sites being represented. The they are without radiocarbon control or stratigraphic evidence
youngest age at Windover, again on human bone, is 6990 + for PI or EA presence that would contribute to the sense of
70 B.P. (7930 - 7740 cal B.P.). A stake associated with one of cultural continuity between earlier and later times. Johnson
the burials from the slough at Little Salt Springs, the Hazeltine Sand Pit also is without stratigraphic or radiocarbon control.
site, returned a slightly later age of 6830 + 155 B.P. (7840 Paradise Park and Harney Flats produced FAS and Newnan
- 7520 cal B.P.), and West Williams produced a single age points in upper stratigraphic levels, including both round- and
below a zone of MA artifacts of 6810 + 40 B.P (7675 - 7610 rectangular-based Putnam and Levy varieties, and both sites
cal B.P.) (Austin et al. 2004; Clausen et al. 1979). At Bay West produced evidence for a lacuna between earlier PI-EA artifacts
three stakes average 6675 + 40 (7585 - 7505 cal B.P.), and and later MA assemblages, as described in more detail below
at Republic Groves ages range from 6520 + 65 to 5745 + 65 (Daniel and Wisenbaker 1987; Neil 1958:38). Unfortunately,
B.P. (7510 - 7330 and 6640 - 6480 cal B.P.) (Beriault et al. there are no radiocarbon controls for either of these important
1981; Wharton et al. 1981). Windover, Hazeltine, Bay West, archaeological sites.
and Republic Groves are each pond/peat burial cemeteries
that have produced impressive numbers of preserved human Radiocarbon Data Gap
remains associated with artifacts of antler, bone, wood, fabric,
atlatl parts, and, occasionally, stone projectile points (Beriault In addition to chronological control for the sites and
1981; Byrd 2011; Carr and Jones 1981; Doran 2002 Wharton artifacts already discussed, frequency distributions of the
et al. 1981). number of radiocarbon ages can be and have been used as
Projectile points from Windover include three thick, proxies for population dynamics over the Holocene epoch.
rectangular based “Kirk Serrated” specimens (Dickel Based on the theory that more people produce more sites
2002:117-118), two of which were associated with burials. from which archaeologists take more radiocarbon samples; or,
Bay West burials also produced three points designated as likewise, that fewer people, produce fewer sites, and therefore
FAS (Levy rectangular based) by Beriault et al. (1981), along fewer samples are taken by archaeologists (e.g., Breschini et
with a round-based Newnan (not associated with any burials). al. 1988; Berry and Berry 1986; Faught 2008; Steele 2010).
All three points at Bay West were wide with respect to length Of course there are preservation and sampling biases involved,
(i.e., stubby), in contrast to the longer examples at Windover. and other data need to be taken into account for theorizing, but
Beriault et al. (1981) reported that some of the points were heat we consider the current sample to be at the least sufficient for
treated. At West Williams, two small rectangular-based points, preliminary analysis.
found below the radiocarbon age of 6810 + 40 B.P. (7675 - 7610 The Dasovich and Doran (2011) compilation includes
cal B.P.) mentioned above, were designated “Kirk Serrated” 1254 radiocarbon ages, ranging from late Pleistocene to historic
(Austin et al. 2004). Similar points were designated Wacissa time (Dasovich 1996). From this sample we culled 143 ages
by Tesar (1994) at the Johnson Sand Pit, but no radiocarbon older than 5000 B.P. from 27 sites. We added 78 radiocarbon
or stratigraphic information exists for this site. The burials ages from 12 sites not included in their sample. This results in
from Republic Groves produced a large inventory of chipped a collection of 221 radiocarbon ages older than 5000 B.P. from
stone items including round-based Putman FAS points, but 39 Florida sites. These ages, and their standard deviations,, are
none from radiometrically-dated contexts. At Jeannie’s Better presented in Appendix I and illustrated in Figure 2 (frequency
Back, a single Kirk Serrated point was designated in the MA distribution of the ages to the left, calibrated probability curves
assemblage, but, again, no radiocarbon date (Austin and to the upper right, and sites discussed in the text are indicated).
Mitchell 1999). Likewise, one specimen was designated as Radiocarbon ages indicating human behavior, human
Kirk Serrated from the upper MA levels at Wakulla Springs presence, or those made on skeletal remains are bolded
(Tesar and Jones 2004), and two were culled from the Johnson (n=124), while ages with a standard deviation of more than
Sand Pit collection (Tesar 1994). We discuss these specimens 200 years, or those downgraded for other reasons, particularly
again below. environmental samples such as peat or wood not indicating
Table 1 and Figure 2 show that sites producing human presence, are shown in gray (n=97)3. Most sites are
radiocarbon ages later than 6500 B.P. (~ 7430 cal B.P.) are represented by single ages, but Page/Ladson (n=43), Warm
more frequent, including Hontoon Dead Creek, Horr’s Island, Mineral Springs (n=30), Little Salt Springs (n=20), Windover
Live Oak Mound, Lake Monroe, Salt Springs, and Ussepa (n=13), J&J Hunt (n=10), Lake Monroe (n=8), Salt Springs
Island (Austin et al. 2004; Deming 2000; Marquardt 1992; (n=8), Tick Island (n=8), Bay West (n=7), Groves Orange
O’Donoughue et al. 2011; Randall and Sassaman 2005; Russo Midden (n=7), Hontoon Dead Creek (n=7), Mouth of Silver
156 The Florida anThropologisT 2012 vol. 65(3)
Table 1. Sites and diagnostic artifacts discussed in the text, including site numbers, age if known, and references to
the data. PI is for Paleoindian, EA for Early Archaic, and MA for Middle Archaic, S&C refers to side- and corner-
notched examples produced; additonal age information available in Appendix A.
Site PI EA MA Chronology
Site Name Citation
Number Diagnostics Diagnostics diagnostic (B.P)
Page-Ladson Pre-Clovis age - 12,400 Unit 3 Webb and Dunbar 2006;
8JE591 Bolen Unit 5
Units 3 and 5 Unit 3 9958 Unit 5 Dunbar 2006
Clovis age ivory
8JE121 Sloth Hole 11,040 Hemmings 2004
artifact
Fluted points with
8MR92 Paradise Park FAS with ceramics no 14C Neil 1958
Suwannee
Suwannee /
8JE1004 Ryan-Harley no 14C Dunbar et al.. 2005
Simpson
Kirk, FAS, and Daniel and Wisenbaker
8HI507 Harney Flats Suwannee Bolen (S&C) no 14C
Newnan 1987
8AL301 Darby Springs Suwannee Bolen no 14C Dolan and Allan 1961
Lake Helen
8BR27 Suwannee Bolen no 14C Edwards 1952
Blazes
8AL439 Bolen Bluff Suwannee isolated Bolen (S&C) no 14C Bullen 1968
Clause et al. 1975;
Warm Mineral
8SO19 Greenbriar 10000 - 9900? Cockrell and Murphy
Springs
1978; Dunbar 2006
Wakulla Bolen (S&C)
8WA329 Suwannee "Kirk" and FAS 9200 -8700? Tesar and Jones 2004
Springs Lodge Cremation
"Kirk Serrated", no 14C, no
Johnson Sand Greenbriar, Dalton,
8LE73 Bolen (S&C) Hamilton, Savannah stratigraphic Tesar 1994
Pit and Simpson
River, Wacissa control
8LE2105 LE 2105 Bolen (S&C) 9880 Hornum et al. 1996
T8A143 Ross Bay Bolen (S&C) no 14C Gramly 1994
possible CN
8DA2001 Cutler Fossil 9800 Carr 1986
Bolen
Bolen ages -
Little Salt
8SO18 no 9500 Clausen et al. 1979
Springs
diagnostics
Jeanie's Better
8LF54 Bolen (S&C) "Kirk", FAS no 14C Austin and Mitchell 1999
Back

Windover "Kirk Serrated"
8BR246 8100 - 6990 Doran 2002; Dickel 2002
Peat Cemetery
Bay West
8CR200 FAS 7550 Beriault 1981
Peat cemetery
Hazeltine
8SO79 NA 6800 - 5200 Clausen et al. 1979
Peat cemetery
"Kirk Serrated" and
8HI509 West Williams 6800 Austin et al 2004
FAS
Republic
8HR4 Groves FAS 6520 Wharton et al. 1981
Peat cemetery
Hontoon Dead Randall and Sassaman
8VO214 FAS, Newnan 6400 - 5600
Creek 2005
8CR209 Horr's Island NA 6300 - 6000 Russo et al. 1991
Live Oak
8VO41 NA 6200 - 6100 Sassaman 2003
Mound
Gauthier
8BR193 FAS no 14C Carr and Jones 1981
Peat cemetery
Diamond "Kirk Stemmed",
8HI476 Greenbriar no 14C Austin 2006
Dairy Newnan
8MR63 Johnson Lake FAS no 14C Bullen and Dolan 1959
Lake Monroe
8VO53 FAS, Newnan 5000 Deming 2000
Outlet Midden
Salt Springs
8MR1 NA 5700 - 5100 O’Donoughue et al. 2011
Run Midden 1
8LL51 Useppa Island NA 5600 - 5100 Marquardt 1992
FaughT and waggoner earlY To middle arChaiC TransiTion 157
Figure 1. Distribution of sites discussed in the text and from the Florida Master Site File (FMSF), including
bathymetric contours indicating the extents of the peninsula at the different periods of time.
158 The Florida anThropologisT 2012 vol. 65(3)
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FaughT and waggoner earlY To middle arChaiC TransiTion 159
Glen Run (n=7), and Mitchell River (n=6) each have produced Springs (Paradise Park). Both sites produced PI-EA artifacts
more than five samples. in lower levels and MA artifacts in upper levels, with sterile
The ages graph as continuous with lower slope indicating stratigraphic zones between the two at both sites. At Harney
more ages in that frame and increased slope indicated less Flats, the dark brown, organic, hardpan (Zone 3) essentially
ages (Figure 2). There are gaps in the bolded sample between sealed PI-EA artifacts (below) from MA artifacts above
pre-Clovis ages in Unit 3 at Page/Ladson, the single Clovis (Daniel and Wisenbaker 1987:33). This sterile hardpan
age on the ivory foreshaft at Sloth Hole, and ages associated indicates an interval of environmental change without human
with notched points at Page/Ladson and 8LE 2105 after 9,900 activity between the earlier and later occupations. If the PI-EA
B.P. (~ 11,300 cal B.P.). We assume the gap between Clovis occupation is no younger than ~ 9000 B.P. (10,200 cal B.P.),
ages and Bolen point ages represents Suwannee time, based on based on the data presented above, and the MA assemblage
typological inference from an abundance of known specimens can be estimated between 6000 and 5,000 B.P. (6880 -
(Dunbar 1991; Thulman 2006b), as well as stratigraphic 5660 cal B.P.) based on the presence of diagnostic Newnan
examples that indicate antiquity as presented above. We projectile points (Austin 2006:170; Daniel and Wisenbaker
understand that this has some resonance with the argument we 1987:28), then there were 3,000 or more years between the
are making for an occupational gap later on, but we consider two occupations and a clear difference in artifact assemblage.
the abundance of Suwannee lanceolates to be stronger At Silver Spring both Neil and Hemmings noted a
supporting data in this age frame than in the later one where significant stratigraphic lacuna between PI and MA artifact
examples of “Kirk Serrated” points are expected but actually occurrences. Deposits there produced fluted and unfluted
occur in very few numbers (and often doubtful as legitimate lanceolates, tools, and debitage in the lower portions of
representatives). the profile (Faught and Thulman 2009; Hemmings 1975;
As the frequency distribution in the lower left corner of Neill 1958). While no EA notched points were produced
Figure 2 demonstrates, there are fewer ages (n=14) in the age stratigraphically in Neil’s or Hemmings’s excavations, they
frame between 9000 and 8000 B.P. (~ 10,200 and 9000 cal occur locally as isolated finds. Above the levels producing
B.P.); only two of which are potentially indicative of human fluted and unfluted lanceolates there was a foot or more of
presence (the Wakulla Springs estimate of 8710 B.P. described sterile fine sand sediments. Above this sterile zone, artifacts
above and the Windover skeleton unequivocally at 8120 B.P.). (and coloration indicating soil development) increased, first
It is difficult to assess accurately, or precisely, how much time chipped-stone artifacts without ceramics, and then heat-
actually may have accrued between occupations, but at least treated chipped-stone artifacts with fiber-tempered and sand-
several hundred calibrated years at minimum and more than tempered ceramics in succession (Neil 1958:42). As noted
1200 at maximum. The Windover skeleton with a radiocarbon previously, round- based Putnam or Marion FAS projectile
age of 8120 B.P is an unequivocal terminus post quem, but points also were found higher up in the profile, associated with
whether the estimates at Wakulla and Little Salt Springs sand tempered ceramics.
around 9200 B.P. ( 10,400 – 10,280 cal B.P.) or the 8700 B.P. Certainly, these are two select examples, but if Florida’s
(9680 - 9600 cal B.P.) estimate at Wakulla Springs Lodge is PI-EA people evolved into Florida’s MA people, one might
the best potential estimate of terminus ante quem is unclear expect sites with PI-EA designations in the Florida Master Site
at this time. Except for the Wakulla 8710 B.P. age and the File (FMSF) also to include MA components. Of the 31,575
Windover skeleton 8100 B.P. age, the few samples in the 9000 recorded sites in the 2012 FMSF database, 725 contained one
to 8000 B.P. age frame are from Little Salt Springs and Warm or more of six PI-EA categories (Figure 1a) and 887 contained
Mineral Springs, and each was rejected by the original authors MA cultural components (Figure 1b)4. Of the PI-EA sites only
as contaminated or determined as not indicative of human about one quarter (188 of 725) also included MA components.
association because they relate to environmental variables Similarly, one quarter (224 of the 887) of the MA sites
(Figure 2 upper right, and Appendix I) 4. As stated, other contained PI-EA components. We interpret this as meaning
data need to be taken into account for theorizing population that MA people mostly were not active at sites where PI-EA
dynamics, and we would expect that as more radiometric ages people had been. Certainly this can be because of changing
are made available, this apparent gap will remain. But there environmental conditions affecting settlement and subsistence
are other data consistent with the notion of a timeframe when procurement patterns, but it can also indicate different cultural
humans are gone or in low numbers in Florida discussed next, choices where sites are located because there are different
and there is the argument we make after that that there is a modes of survival.
lack of convincing evidence for cultural historical continuity It is also interesting to note that the FMSF database
between PI-EA and MA culture groups. includes ten (n=10) sites with Early Archaic Kirk (Corner,
Notched, or Stemmed) as a culture group category, as expected
Stratigraphic and Site File Data by the received view. Of the PI-EA sites in the FMSF, a little
more than 1 percent (n=9) also contained an Early Archaic
The inference of population decline based on a lack Kirk component, whereas less than one percent (n=6) of the
of associated radiocarbon ages can be buttressed with MA sites had this component. In other words, these are rare
geoarchaeological examples of stratigraphic gaps between examples. We note that in the 2010 FMSF database there was
archaeological assemblages, like at Harney Flats and Silver only one site with this designation, and in 2005 the category
160 The Florida anThropologisT 2012 vol. 65(3)
had not been introduced to the database. Of the Early Archaic the stemmed specimens, some of which were serrated, were
Kirk sites, all but one (West Williams), are located in northern shallower, but both were in the one geologic bed. Occupational
portions of the state. and cultural-historical continuity (of the tool makers) were
Regardless of these few examples, to us the radiocarbon, indicated by continuous deposition of sediment and aspects of
stratigraphic, and FMSF data show two culture histories on the artifact production indicating descent with modification of
each side of an occupational hiatus. Because the projectile the chipped stone industry (i.e., affinity).
points that allegedly bridge these two culture histories in The Hardaway typological sequence and its cultural-
Florida are “Kirk” (in particular “Kirk Serrated”), the question historical inferences were quickly appealed to as an example,
might be asked, what do these “Kirks” look like and where are first by Gordon Willey in his Introduction to North American
they found? Archaeology (1966) and later by Betty Broyles (1966, 1971) in
her work at St. Albans. In fact, it now seems that all researchers
Florida’s Typological Cacophony east of the Mississippi have somehow incorporated either Kirk
Corner Notched or Kirk Stemmed/Serrated, or both, into their
We are going to switch argument genres now and focus on own area of study (Brookes 1985; Fagan 2000; Justice 1987,
a typological cacophony that has developed in Florida (indeed, Kimball 1986; Oliver 1985). Ripley Bullen (1975:32) included
the Eastern U.S. in general) that we would like to shed some it as “Kirk Serrated” in his 1975 booklet. Apparently Bullen
light on. As is well known by most researchers “Kirk “ projectile ignored the similarities of the Bolen notched series with Coe’s
points include two basic kinds, corner-notched and stemmed; Kirk Corner Notched type at that time.
and they belong in a series of point types that begins with fluted Comparison of Coe’s (1964:71, Figure 60, rows A and
and lanceolate points, transitions to side- and corner-notched B) photographs of Kirk Corner Notched points with Bullen’s
points, and then, sometime after 9000 B.P. (~ 10,200 cal B.P.), (1975:51-52) silhouette shapes for Bolen Corner Notched
several different kinds of notched, bifurcated- and stemmed- shows morphological similarities, although Coe’s Kirks
based points converge on the landscape with concentrations tend to be larger. It is understandable, morphologically and
that we think indicate social-cultural boundaries (sensu chronologically, that Bolen Corner Notched and Kirk Corner
Sassaman 2010). These diversities of shape befuddle artifact Notched designations can be used interchangeably on many
assemblage interpretations, which in lower strata seem easy to specimens. As shown above, side- and corner-notched points
affiliate with a fluted point technological ancestry as described in Florida range from 10,000 B.P. (Page/Ladson and 8LE2105)
above. to perhaps 9200 B.P., if not 8700 B.P. (at the Wakulla Lodge
As it turns out, not only are there multiple kinds of points Site), and Kirk Corner Notched points are supposed to range
being made at these times to confuse simple seriation models, from 9500 to 8900 B.P., depending on which authority one
but regional differences of nomenclature by collectors and uses. Thus, the two types overlap in time and morphology
archaeologists cloud the understanding of these evolving (Justice 1987:71). In fact, some corner-notched points in
patches. On the one hand many projectile points have similar Florida that could have been called Bolen have been designated
shapes and similar stratigraphic positions, but different names, “Kirk Corner Notched” (Daniel and Wisenbaker 1987:34-35;
depending on which state they were found. On the other Carter and Dunbar 2006:498; Latvis and Quitmeyer 2006:27).
hand, points of different shapes, especially different basal Grayal Farr (2006:66-68) goes as far as to recommend that all
shapes for hafting are referred to with the same name, even corner-notched points in Florida be referred to as “Kirk.” to
though they may have different stratigraphic occurrences or distinguish them from side-notched Bolens. While this may
positions. Florida’s side- and corner- notched “Bolen” points be a useful strategy for the future, our compilation shows
are excellent examples of the first kind of problem as they also that side- and corner-notched points are found together in the
can be designated as “Big Sandy,” “Pine Tree,” “Plevna,” earliest cases discussed above (Page/Ladson and 8LE2105),
“Taylor,” “Palmer,” or, especially, “Kirk” Corner Notched thus confusing a sense of “sequence” (Faught et al. 2003).
points in other States in the eastern U.S. (Anderson and Bullen’s (1975:37) “Kirk Serrated” silhouettes, on the
Hanson 1988; Bullen 1975:51-52; Farr 2006; Justice 1987:82; other hand, are not similar to Coe’s (1964:71-72, Figures
Kimball 1986:157-159; Oliver 1985:202). The opposite 60, row C and Figure 61A-H) “Kirk stemmed/serrated”
phenomenon also exists in Florida because points of different photographs. Coe’s stemmed specimens have rectangular-
shapes are referred to with the same name; for instance, “Kirk shaped stems with straight to concave, intentionally thinned
Serrated,” is often applied to a specimen because the point bases, including some with flute-like flake scars clearly
may have a serrated blade, regardless of its overall shape or indicating a concern with the morphology of the biface for
basal attributes. So how did so many different kinds of points hafting. As with all the projectile points in the sequence, the
end up being called “Kirk?” haftable areas were treated with multiple blows to thin the base
It is a matter of archaeological historiography that “Kirk” so that it could be attached, theoretically, by lashing a split
points (both corner-notched and stemmed varieties) were stick shaft (or a composite shaft) and smaller piece to bind the
found in, and named for, one geologic unit, the Kirk Bed at the biface between them with sinew or other cordage (Lahren and
Hardaway site in North Carolina, in the late 1950s by Joffre Bonnichsen 1974).
Coe (1959; 1964:57; Daniel 1998). The Kirk family owned Bullen’s emphasis was on thickness in his point
the land. The corner-notched specimens were deeper, and description of Kirk Serrated along with rectangular bases and,
FaughT and waggoner earlY To middle arChaiC TransiTion 161
of course, serrated blades, but he does not focus on evidence Dolan 1959:92, Figure 4; Tesar 1994). Regrettably, there are
of basal thinning, or any basal concavity as did Coe. These no radiocarbon ages for either site, and Johnson Sand Pit is
attributes are emphasized in his descriptions of Hamilton lacking stratigraphic control. It is of interest in the cacophony
and Arredondo points, which, by the way, he equates in time of types that points from both of these sites could also be
with Kirk Serrated. Review of Dickel’s Figure 4.19 (2002:91) designated Savannah River, Hamilton, or other large bladed,
shows the points from Windover are easily consistent with basally-thinned, but stemmed varieties. Same shapes, same
Bullen’s “Kirk Serrated” or Purdy’s (1981:34) similar “Kirk basal treatments, but different names.
Serrated” because they are thick stemmed points, with mastic In fact, the range of forms considered through the years
for hafting in socketed shaft, not a split stick. Certainly, none to be “Kirk Serrated” by different researchers in Florida can
of these examples are arguably similar to Coe’s type specimens be understood by study of specimens curated in the Florida
(Bullen 1975:37; Dickel 2002:117-118). Another discrepancy Division of Historical Resources (FDHR). In December of
is that the radiocarbon record at Windover puts these points, 2011 Faught observed more than one-hundred “Kirk Serrated”
and subsequent potential “Kirk Serrated” specimens, at specimens, and the collection (n=109) could easily be sorted
8100 B.P. or younger (terminus post quem), at the very end into four groups. The majority (n=48, or 43.6 percent) were
of Justice’s (1987) estimate of time range for Kirk Stemmed broadly consistent with Coe’s basally-thinned, rectangular-
from 8900 to 8000 B.P. Tesar and Jones (2004) and Austin based Kirk points or Bullen’s “squarish to rectangular tang”
(2001:37; 2006) have proposed that there is a longer Kirk Points. Of course, several of these examples also could
chronozone in Florida, first in the 9000 to 8000 B.P. (10,200 have been designated Hamilton, Savannah River, Wacissa,
- 8900 cal B.P.) frame, as expected in the greater Southeast, or other large-bladed, stemmed point varieties depending
and then another Floridian form that occurs from 8000 to 7000 on where they were found or who designated them. Twenty
B.P. (8900 - 7850 cal B.P.) where Florida’s “Kirk Serrated” (18.1 percent) of the specimens were corner-notched points
specimens seem to occur (Table 1). This post-Kirk “Kirk” that also could have also been designated “Bolen.” Of course,
zone serves to retain the type name, and its assumed cultural there were “others” (n=14, or 13 percent) that did not have
historical meaning, over two millennia of calibrated time. bases or possessed other problems that inhibited classification.
Unlike the earliest examples at Windover, the stemmed Finally, a little more than a quarter (n=29, or 26.3 percent)
points found at two other early MA pond burial sites, Bay West of the collection consisted of thicker, round-based stemmed
and Republic Groves, were short, stubby broad-bladed points, points, not retouched at the base for thinness, that possessed
with round bases like Putnam or Marion FAS, only shorter, but large blades with a single characteristic of serrations, but
certainly having more potential for hafting into a socket than not consistent with either Coe or Bullen types. In fact, the
split-stick hafting (Bullen 1975:32; Beriault 1981:52; Wharton common denominator in the collections, and clearly the focus
et al. 1981:67). At Wakulla Springs, points designated “Kirk of researcher attention, was blade serration, as only seven
Serrated” from MA levels are like these specimens and not specimens (6 percent) were not serrated.
consistent with either Bullen or Coe definitions except for
the serrations (Tesar and Jones 2004). At West Williams, two Discussion
short (stubby), rectangular-based, serrated projectile points
designated “Kirk Serrated” were found below other MA The problems we have with this typological cacophony
artifacts, as expected, and also below the radiocarbon age are not that the similarities in points are not convincing
estimate of 6810 + 40 B.P.. However, neither are consistent or important, or that point types cannot indicate temporal
with Bullen’s or Coe’s type descriptions (Austin 2004:169; position or cultural historical relatedness when there is no
2006:101-102), and no PI-EA occupation is indicated below other evidence, such as is the case with fluted points, or even
them to confirm a culturally-related evolution (descent with that blade treatments are important indicators of shared tool
modification) of the chipped stone traditions. Similar points in use, which they are. Rather, it is the particular narrative in
the collections at Johnson Sand Pit were designated Wacissa Florida that PI-EA people became MA people on the basis of
by Tesar (1994). the presence of Kirk points in the state. In particular, we take
One site in Florida often associated with “Kirk” that exception to the related assumption that Windover people are
substantiates the notion of continuity between PI-EA and “Kirk” people. Remember Milanich’s (1994:63-64) inference:
MA culture groups is Harney Flats, because Daniel and Early Archaic peoples might be viewed as a population
Wisenbaker (1987:34; Figure 11, E & F) called two specimens changing from the nomadic paleoindian subsistence pattern to
there “Kirks.” Both are roughly rectangular-based stemmed the more settled coastal and riverine associated regimes of the
points, one apparently corner notched (Daniel and Wisenbaker Middle Archaic period.
1987:35). Both were serrated and refitted with fragments that Under the old theory that continuity existed between
came from upper MA sediments on the one hand and from PI-EA and MA peoples, and given that aspects of the MA
displaced contexts on the other (Daniel and Wisenbaker in Florida can be followed into the LA and later ceramic
1987:34-35). Johnson Lake (Bullen and Dolan 1959) and times, and because those assemblages can be associated with
Johnson Sand Pitt have produced select points with attributes people known at European contact, people known at contact
consistent with Coe’s stemmed Kirks considering both basal would ultimately have been related to fluted point-making PI
treatment and possibly the associated tool kits (Bullen and people. Given the evidence presented here to the contrary, we
162 The Florida anThropologisT 2012 vol. 65(3)
emphatically disagree with this equivocal chain of inference, in Tennessee (Chapman 1977:112-113). Preservation of the
especially given that the best evidence for EA-MA continuity skeletal remains in pond burials earlier, and in middens and
has rested on “Kirk Serrated” points, which we have shown to mounds later, rather than cremating, is certainly typical of MA
be dubious index fossils bridging the two culture groups. people in Florida.
We argue that MA people in Florida probably did not learn The question of whether these are significant indications
how to chip stone from their PI-EA predecessors based on of culture groups with different ancestries or transformations
notable differences in the two assemblages, even though MA of one culture group into the other is left open for additional
people surely found examples to re-use or try to imitate, just research and debate. We consider these differences to indicate
as we do today. Those familiar with chipped stone reduction different culture groups regardless of the possible gap in time
strategies and tool types of the two archaeological assemblages between occupations that also supports our interpretation
recognize fundamental differences between PI-EA artifacts here. We consider replacement as a legitimate and perhaps
(sometimes referred to as “formal”) and MA artifacts more accurate alternative explanation for the data we see in
(sometimes referred to as “expedient”) (Austin 2006:169; Florida. As Milanich and Fairbanks (1980:51) have noted:
Daniel and Wisenbaker 1983:144; Purdy 1981:38-39). Austin differences between artifact assemblages can be “ethnic or…
(2006) has reported finding more unifacial tools in the earlier functional.” Our opinion is that we (archaeologists) need to
assemblages and more emphasis on biface production in the address such topics with questions about what attributes of
later assemblages. Heat treating is considered diagnostic of which artifacts actually identify learned behaviors and their
MA assemblage, and it is indicative of distinct differences in material outcomes.
the kinds of tool stone known and utilized by MA knappers
compared with those stone resources known and utilized by Conclusion
PI-EA knappers (Austin 2006; Purdy 1981; Tesar 2004).
It is true that MA sites and isolated finds collections Florida has produced multiple lines of evidence for
have produced abundant numbers of MA projectile points population persistence and cultural continuity from the makers
(or knives) that were made with knapping skills as practiced of PI fluted and unfluted lanceolates through the makers of
as any PI-EA artifact. These include shaping and thinning EA side- and corner-notched points to some time after 9000
biface performs, or flake blanks, into haftable tools, having B.P. (10,200 cal B.P.). On the other hand, there are just two
symmetry and low edge sinuosity. Newnan’s, in particular, are sites with ages between 9000 B.P. (10,200 cal B.P.) and 8000
usually made with care, even by definition (Bullen 1975:31; B.P. (8990 cal B.P.) in Florida that indicate human presence,
Clausen 1964:8-11). On the other hand, and as introduced Wakulla Springs and the earliest Windover skeleton. To twist
already, we interpret the bases of most Florida MA stemmed the usual phrase - the absence of evidence can be evidence
points as prepared for hafting in a socket, rather than hafting of absence, and we interpret these data to indicate a lacuna
by lashing the point with a split shaft, as we assume was done of human presence in Florida during the 9000-8000 B.P.
with PI-EA points. Alan Bryan (1980) has presented an in- timeframe. Whether this lacuna was due to population decline
depth discussion of these fundamental hafting differences: by attrition or retreat, or whether by environmental or social
lashing split shafts versus socketed and cemented hafting factors is not addressed here5.
(which, of course, can also be lashed outside the socket). In addition to, or because of, this possible lacuna, there
The edges of socket-based projectile points do not need to is no convincing evidence for direct historical continuity
be ground to protect the lashing from cutting, but they need from the makers of PI-EA-related assemblages containing
to be thick to add to the surface area contacting and holding early Holocene-aged notched points through to the makers
the biface. The Windover specimens clearly demonstrate that of MA lithic assemblages containing large bladed, sometimes
MA knappers hafted their thick, stemmed-based bifaces using serrated, round- and square-based stemmed points of middle
mastic, and we infer this to imply their concomitant use of Holocene age after 8000 B.P. (8990 cal B.P.). The parsimonious
socketed shafts. This markedly differs from PI-EA knappers inference is replacement.
who hafted by lashing basally thinned bifaces between a split For archaeologists this means we should give greater
stick shaft or possibly as a composite with a small piece lashed consideration to parsing out details of population dynamics
to a longer shaft (Lahren and Bonnichsen 1974:149, Figure and social group identity and diversity in Florida via chipped
3). We are not aware of any mastic remaining on any earlier stone and other assemblages (e.g., Byrd 2011; Sassaman 2010)
lanceolate or notched points, but mastic could be involved in rather than reinforcing long-established chronologies stacked
split stick hafting as well. in neat and tidy sets that may not have supporting data. It also
Another possible indicator of differences in the ancestries means that Native Floridians encountered at Contact were
of the two culture groups is treatment of the dead. We argue arguably not descendants of fluted point-making PI-EA people
that the burial practices of the two groups indicate different of Florida (Bolnick and Smith 2003; Granberry 1991).
cultural traditions, and although there is only one example Our “received view” of the early cultural chronology
of a PI-EA burial in Florida, the Wakulla Springs Lodge Site of eastern North America evolved with Coe’s stratigraphic
cremation (Tesar and Jones 2004:81-82), other cremations excavations way up north in the Carolina Piedmont in the 1960s,
associated with notched-point archaeological assemblages where stratigraphic and technological continuity of social
are known in the eastern U.S., such as at Ice House Bottom groups from PI-EA to MA continues to be more demonstrable