The development of real-world and counterfactual-world inference generation abilities during

428 Pages·2017·89.79 MB·English

The development of real-world and counterfactual-world inference generation abilities
during adolescence
HANCOCK, Rebecca
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The Development of Real-World and Counterfactual-World Inference
Generation Abilities during Adolescence
Rebecca Hancock
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Sheffield Hallam
University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
September 2016
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank all of those who have supported me during my PhD journey.
Special thanks goes to my supervisors, Dr Lisa Reidy, Dr Jane Morgan and Dr David
Reynolds, for their continued support, patience and advice. I would also like to extend
my gratitude to the children and young people, families, and schools who participated in
this research, without their cooperation and kindness this project would not have been
possible. Finally, I would like to thank my partner, Cain, for his endless support,
regardless of the time of day. Be it an ear, cup of tea, or break I needed he was always
there to support.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS......................................................................................................3
TABLE OF CONTENTS..........................................................................................................4
ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................12
LIST OF TABLES...................................................................................................................13
LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................18
OVERVIEW.............................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER 1 LITERATURE REVIEW...............................................................................21
1.1. Real-World Inference Generation..............................................................................24
1.1.1. Categorisation of Inference Types......................................................................26
1.1.1.1. Experimentally Determining the Online-Offline Nature of an Inference
.......................................................................................................................................29
1.1.1.2. The Constructionist Theory..........................................................................29
1.1.1.2.1. Coherence Inferences............................................................................30
1.1.1.2.2. Elaborative inferences...........................................................................31
1.1.2. The Development of Inference Generation Abilities........................................34
1.2. Learning from Fiction: Counterfactual-World Inference Generation...................36
1.2.1. Counterfactual-World Text Processing..............................................................37
1.2.2. The Development of Counterfactual-World Inference Generation................41
1.3. Components of Inference Generation.........................................................................47
1.3.1. Neurological Basis of Inference Generation......................................................47
1.3.2. Knowledge.............................................................................................................48
1.3.3. Inhibitory Control..................................................................................................51
1.4. Inference Generation and Literacy Skills..................................................................53
1.4.1. Inference Generation and Reading Comprehension.........................................54
1.4.2. Inference Generation and Text Production.........................................................58
1.5. Summary of Research..................................................................................................60
CHAPTER 2 THE ASSESSMENT OF INFERENCE GENERATION: SELECTING
AN APPROPRIATE TASK....................................................................................................62
2.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................62
2.2. The Assessment of Real-World and Counterfactual-World Inference Generation
Abilities during Adolescence: Key methodological issues and considerations 62
2.2.1. Assessment of a Range of Age Groups..............................................................62
2.2.2. Assessing Both Inferential Skill and Time-Course............................................63
2.2.3. Counterfactual-World Inference Generation: Assessing the Interference
Experienced due to the Activation of Real-World Knowledge..................................64
2.3. Selecting a Task.............................................................................................................64
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2.3.1. Using a Self-Paced Reading Tasks to Assess the Inferential Time-Course ..65
2.3.2. Using a Forced-Choice Picture-Selection Task to Assess the Inferential
Product...............................................................................................................................68
2.3.3. Assessing a Range of Age Groups: Reducing Output Demands Via the Use
of Pictures..........................................................................................................................70
2.3.4. Using a 2*2 Forced-Choice Picture Selection Task to Promote a Natural
Reading Process................................................................................................................72
2.3.5. Using Pictures to Evaluate the Mental Representations Constructed From
Verbal Stimuli...................................................................................................................73
2.3.6. Using a 2*2 Forced-Choice Picture-Selection Task to Assess Real-World
Interference.......................................................................................................................76
2.4. Conclusion...................................................................................................................77
CHAPTER 3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE IMAGE SELECTION TASK - A NEW
INFERENCE GENERATION PARADIGM........................................................................79
3.1. Introduction...................................................................................................................79
3.1.1. Outline of the Image Selection Task...................................................................79
Story Development......................................................................................................80
Development of Critical Texts...................................................................................83
Selection of Coherence and Elaborative Inferences Types................................84
Criteria for Critical Texts.......................................................................................85
Development of the Forced-Choice Picture-Selection Task..................................87
Design of Fillers......................................................................................................89
Additional considerations..........................................................................................90
Comprehension Questions.....................................................................................90
Instructions...............................................................................................................91
Practice Trials..........................................................................................................91
3.1.2. Current Study.........................................................................................................92
3.2. Stage 1: Evaluation of Inferences Evoked by the Critical Text.............................92
3.2.1. Method....................................................................................................................93
3.2.1.1. Participants.....................................................................................................93
3.2.1.2. Design and Materials.....................................................................................93
3.2.1.2.1. Critical Text Booklet...........................................................................93
3.2.1.3. Procedure........................................................................................................96
3.2.2. Results.....................................................................................................................97
3.3. Stage 2: Evaluation of the Interpretation, Processing Difficulty, and Plausibility
of Pictorial Stimuli...............................................................................................................98
3.3.1. Method..................................................................................................................99
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3.3.1.1. Participants.....................................................................................................99
3.3.1.2. Materials and Design...................................................................................99
3.3.1.2.1. Picture Validation Booklet...................................................................99
3.3.1.3. Procedure......................................................................................................101
3.3.2. Results.................................................................................................................102
3.3.2.1. Accuracy of Picture Depiction..................................................................102
3.3.2.1.1. Preliminary Analysis...........................................................................106
3.3.2.1.2. Picture Difficulty Ratings..................................................................106
3.3.2.1.3. Picture Plausibility Ratings................................................................107
3.4. Discussion.................................................................................................................109
CHAPTER 4 AN EVALUATION OF THE IMAGE SELECTION TASK..................Ill
4.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................Ill
4.1.1. Designing the Image Selection Task................................................................Ill
4.1.2. Evaluating the 1ST...............................................................................................112
4.1.3. The Current Study................................................................................................113
4.2. Stage 1 - Comparing Time-Course and Skill Patterns on the Sentence
Verification Task and Image Selection Task..................................................................115
4.2.1. Method..................................................................................................................115
4.2.1.1. Participants...................................................................................................115
4.2.1.2. Design...........................................................................................................115
4.2.1.3. Materials.......................................................................................................116
4.2.1.3.1. Image Selection Task..........................................................................116
4.2.1.3.2. Sentence Verification Task................................................................120
4.2.1.4. Procedure......................................................................................................121
4.2.2. Results...................................................................................................................124
4.2.2.1. Preliminary Analysis...................................................................................124
4.2.2.2. Assessing the Inferential Time-Course: 1ST Reading Speed and SVT
Response Time Measures.........................................................................................124
4.2.2.3. Assessing Inferential Skill.........................................................................130
4.2.2.4. Error Analysis..............................................................................................132
4.2.2.4.1. Children’s Data....................................................................................132
4.2.2.4.2. Adult’s Data.........................................................................................134
4.3. Stage 2 - Comparing Time-Course and Skill Patterns on the Sentence
Verification Task and Image Selection Task Using Amended Stimuli.......................135
4.3.1. Method................................................................................................................135
4.3.1.1. Participants 135
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4.3.1.2. Design..........................................................................................................135
4.3.1.3. Materials.......................................................................................................135
4.3.1.3.1. Modified Image Selection Task........................................................135
4.3.1.3.2. Modified Sentence Verification Task...............................................136
4.3.1.4. Procedure......................................................................................................136
4.3.2. Results.................................................................................................................137
4.3.2.1. Preliminary Analysis..................................................................................137
4.3.2.2. Assessing Inferential Time-Course...........................................................137
4.3.2.3. Assessing Inferential Skill.........................................................................140
4.3.2.4. Error Analysis.............................................................................................145
4.3.2.4.1. Children’s Error Patterns...................................................................145
4.3.2.4.2. Adults’ Error Patterns.........................................................................146
4.4. Discussion.................................................................................................................146
4.4.1. The Image Selection Task as a Measure of the Inferential Time-Course.... 147
4.4.2. The Image Selection Task as a Measure of Inference Generation Skill......147
4.4.3. Conclusion............................................................................................................149
CHAPTER 5 METHODOLOGY FOR STUDIES 3-5......................................................151
5.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................151
5.2. Design...........................................................................................................................151
5.3. Participant Recruitment..............................................................................................152
5.3.1. Selection of Age Groups.....................................................................................152
5.3.2. Sample Selection..................................................................................................152
5.3.3. Ethical Considerations........................................................................................155
5.4. Cognitive Assessment of Inference Generation, Underpinning Skills and
Processes, and Higher-Order Literacy Skills...................................................................156
5.4.1. Introduction...........................................................................................................156
5.4.2. Administration of the Test Battery....................................................................157
5.4.3. Measures...............................................................................................................157
5.4.3.1. Inference Generation...................................................................................159
5.4.3.2. Control Measures.........................................................................................159
5.4.3.2.1. Non-Verbal and Verbal Reasoning....................................................159
5.4.3.2.2. Working Memory.................................................................................159
5.4.3.2.3. Single-Word-Reading.........................................................................161
5.4.3.3. Higher-Order Literacy Measures...............................................................161
5.4.3.3.I. Reading Comprehension...................................................................161
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