The Dangers of Masculine Support Messages Addressing Adverse Childhood Experiences

219 Pages·2017·1.26 MB·English

by  Natalie Hoskins

The Dangers of Masculine Support Messages Addressing Adverse
Childhood Experiences: Social Support as a Strategy for Abuse
Prevention and Intervention
By
© 2017
Natalie Suzanne Hoskins
M.A., University of Kansas, 2013
B.A., University of Missouri—Kansas City, 2005
Submitted to the graduate degree program in Communication Studies and the Graduate Faculty
of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy.

Chair: Adrianne Kunkel, Ph.D.

Yan Bing Zhang, Ph.D.

Beth Innocenti, Ph.D.

Robert Minor, Ph.D.

Jennifer Ng, Ph.D.
Date Defended: April 5, 2017
ii

The dissertation committee for Natalie S. Hoskins certifies that this is the
approved version of the following dissertation:
The Dangers of Masculine Support Messages Addressing Adverse
Childhood Experiences: Social Support as a Strategy for Abuse
Prevention and Intervention

Chair: Adrianne Kunkel, Ph.D.

Date Approved: April 12, 2017
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Abstract
Perpetrators of intimate partner violence (IPV) are more likely to have been exposed to
adverse childhood experiences (ACES) than the general population (e.g., Whitfield, Anda, Dube,
& Felitti, 2003). Despite this association, occurrence of ACES does not guarantee the
development of patterned abusive behavior (Godbout et al., 2017). To understand the link
between ACES and IPV perpetration, limited research (e.g., Felitti & Anda, 2010; Miller, 1997)
has identified talking with nonjudgmental others (e.g., counselors) as a social strategy that may
help mitigate the effects of childhood adversity. However, damaged attachments (e.g., Haven &
Pearlman, 2004) and characteristics of traditional masculine gender socialization (e.g.,
“restrictive emotionality”; see O’Neil, 2008), may prevent individuals from seeking and
obtaining the emotional and cognitive benefits of social support (e.g., Sarason & Sarason, 2009).
Thus, the purpose of the current study was to better understand how male IPV perpetrators
perceive social support during childhood and as members of abuse intervention program (AIP)
groups.
For this dissertation project, I became a participant observer at a local AIP that offered
27-week AIP groups for IPV perpetrators, typically court-mandated to attend. From April 2014
to February 2015, I completed approximately 257.5 hours of participant observation within an
AIP group and facilitator meetings. Additionally, I conducted semi-structured interviews with 15
male IPV perpetrators to explore individual experiences in greater detail. The data were analyzed
using a combination of concept-driven, open, and axial coding, creating an inductive and
iterative process for interpretation (e.g., Manning & Kunkel, 2014).
Participants’ reports revealed high frequency of ACES, prevalence of damaged
attachments via parental loss and caregiver abuse, and patterns of negative messages about self-
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worth. Additionally, participants reported low and sometimes absent positive social ties and the
tendency to seek surrogate support associated with negative influences (i.e., gang membership,
drug use). Finally, study participants received persistent messages that discouraged help seeking
and engendered masculine communication styles (e.g., self-reliance, aggression, rejection of
femininity, restrictive emotionality; Levant & Richmond, 2007), preventing social support
access. The current study illustrates how the effects of ACES and damaged attachments can be
exacerbated by the absence of positive social ties and adherence to masculine gender norms
governing communication. Findings are discussed regarding theoretical implications and
practical applications for AIP group facilitation.
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Dedication

To all those who hurt.
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Acknowledgements
When I began this project in 2013, I had little to no idea what I was getting myself into.
The challenges and rewards that surprised me along the way are now an integral part of who I am
as a scholar, a partner, a mother, and a friend. The work I did and the relationships I developed
have all influenced me in many known and yet to be known ways. What I have learned from this
project about myself, I hope, will help me as I continue to grow and learn. What I have learned
from this project about violence, I hope, will help continue the work that started far before I ever
came along.
There are many people who I would like to acknowledge for their support in helping to
complete this enormous project. Though it is impossible to place higher importance on any one
individual, I must first thank the men who shared their stories and made themselves vulnerable
for the benefit of others. I hope sharing your stories helped you in some small way. Without your
willingness to participate, this project would not have been possible. For that same reason, it is
important that I also acknowledge those few people who granted me access to their lives for over
three years of sitting in on the Wednesday night groups. Though I cannot name names, you know
who you are. Thank you for granting me access to your program, your groups, your trainings,
your research, and your hearts. Thank you for teaching me how to facilitate groups and for
trusting me to become a co-facilitator. I will always remember the struggles we endured as we
navigated through difficult group dynamics and the laughter we shared as we grew to be friends.
Though some of you left before I finished my work, you have not been forgotten, and I owe
many thanks to you all.
To my dissertation committee, I would like to acknowledge the inspiration, time, and
patience that you gave generously to me. At one point, I was sure that your enthusiasm would
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fade, yet you continuously encouraged me and proved committed to stay the course. Dr. Kunkel,
as my committee chair, mentor, co-author, and friend, I am excited to see what happens next for
us! You have guided me these past SIX years, and I thank you for your ongoing love and
support. Without you, I would certainly be a different kind of scholar, and I know that your
influence has shaped how I will mentor my own future students. Dr. Zhang, I have learned a lot
from you, but most of all, I have learned that one can produce rigorous scholarship while also
having a big heart. I have always been impressed by your ability to have both.
Dr. Innocenti, though we had not known each other for very long, I knew I wanted you to
be a part of my committee when I took your capstone course. I loved the way you played with
ideas and entertained the possibilities of theory. I knew that you would push me to think
critically (and rhetorically!) about my research decisions. Dr. Ng, it turns out that I was lucky my
department does not offer qualitative methods! If it had, I may never have met you. I learned so
much from your methods course. Your teaching style and your own experience in qualitative
methods gave me the resources and the confidence to pursue my own qualitative study. Dr.
Minor, your visit to Dr. Kunkel’s gendered communication class in 2013 led me to purchase
your book, Scared straight: Why it’s so hard to accept gay people and why it’s so hard to be
human, which ultimately was the inspiration for my original study proposal. I am honored that
you agreed to join my committee, bringing your work and passion to the table. The confluence of
these five, outstanding individuals contributed to my project’s rigor and warmth and the potential
future avenues we can pursue together.
Next, I must acknowledge the people who helped me get to graduate school (and survive
it!) in the first place. I am more than fortunate to have support that extends beyond the walls of
academia. My friends and family cheered me on and supported me from various parts of the
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country. Though there are many I would like to name, I can only name a few, so let it be known
that I cherish you all. To my sister, Leah, whose own journey of learning and growth inspired me
every day, I am grateful that you were present to cheer me on. To my grandfather, Glenn, my
grandmother, Carol, my mother, Joy, and my father, Stewart, I owe a huge debt of gratitude to
your never-ending support and encouragement. Though the material support may have, at times,
contributed to my ability to eat, it was the emotional and cognitive support that nourished me and
prevented me from letting any fears or thoughts of inadequacy come to manifest. Thank you for
all that you have done to support me and my family as I travelled the long graduate school road.
To my children, Iola and Arthur, if you ever read this, I want you to know that the irony
of my absence while completing this project was not lost on me. Though I studied the enduring
effects of absent parents, I nonetheless chose to work nonstop at two (sometimes three) jobs to
make grad school work, making me frequently absent from your young lives. Arthur, you were
two years old when I started, and Iola, you were four. I knew it was difficult to see less and less
of me as the years went on. I just want you to know that not one day went by when I did not feel
regret for how little time I got to spend with you. Now that I have finished, I hope to make up for
lost time, to be there for you, and show you my love and support.
To my dear husband, Thom, I may owe the biggest debt to you. Though we did our best
to share responsibilities and model gender equity, there were many times when you, alone, had to
shoulder the work. In many ways, you were overburdened, and I was often scared I asked too
much. Of course, you never made me feel I was a burden but always told me you were proud and
wanted me to succeed. I love you, and I am forever grateful for your sacrifice. I stood on your
shoulders to reach for the stars, and you held us ALL higher than I could have dreamed. Because
of your strength and partnership, we have a bright future ahead. Now it is my turn to lift you up.
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Table of Contents
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iii

Dedication .......................................................................................................................................v

Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... vi

Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... ix

Chapter One: Introduction and Rationale ........................................................................................1
Communication Scholarship in Abuse Intervention ............................................................1
Rationale for Research Site ..................................................................................................2
The Family Safety Enterprises (FSE) Program .......................................................5
FSE Program Participants ........................................................................................8
Rationale for Project Focus ..................................................................................................9
Theoretical Assumptions and Defining Terms ..................................................................10
Adverse Childhood Experiences ............................................................................10
Dialectical Terms ...................................................................................................11
Conceptualizing Trauma ............................................................................12
Conceptualizing Abuse ..............................................................................13
Communicating Social Support .............................................................................15
Summary of Chapter One ..................................................................................................16
Preview of Subsequent Chapters .......................................................................................17

Chapter Two: Review of Literature ...............................................................................................18
The Trauma of Masculine Gender Socialization ...............................................................18
Restrictive Emotionality and Correlates ................................................................20
Expressive Suppression and Correlates .................................................................23
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACES) ..........................................................................26
ACES and Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) ..........................................................26
Research Question One ..........................................................................................29
ACES and Attachment ...........................................................................................30
Communicating Social Support .........................................................................................32
Social Embeddedness.............................................................................................33
Perceived Social Support .......................................................................................34
Enacted Support .....................................................................................................34
Types of Social Support Resources .......................................................................35
Emotional Support .....................................................................................35
Cognitive Support ......................................................................................35
Material Support ........................................................................................35
x
Research Question Two .........................................................................................37
History of Abuse Intervention in the United States ...........................................................37
Abuse Intervention Programs ............................................................................................38
EMERGE ...............................................................................................................38
The Duluth Model ..................................................................................................39
Tools of Abuse Intervention ..............................................................................................40
Feminist Psychoeducation .........................................................................40
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy ...................................................................41
Abuse Intervention Program Effectiveness .......................................................................42
Abuse Intervention: Trauma-Focused Programming.........................................................43
Concerns Regarding Trauma-Focused Programming ........................................................44
Research Question Three ...................................................................................................46

Chapter Three: Methods ................................................................................................................47
Participant Observation of Participants .............................................................................47
Observation Procedures .........................................................................................49
Semi-Structured Interviews with Participants ...................................................................51
Interview Procedures .............................................................................................52
Interview Participants ............................................................................................52
Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................54
Validity ..................................................................................................................55
Preview of Chapter Four ....................................................................................................56

Chapter Four: Results ....................................................................................................................57
Introduction ........................................................................................................................57
RQ1: Prevalence and Types of ACES ...............................................................................58
Psychological Abuse ..............................................................................................60
Psychological Bullying ..............................................................................60
Household Psychological Abuse................................................................62
Physical Abuse .......................................................................................................66
Physical Abuse from Siblings and Peers ...................................................66
Physical Abuse from Parent(s), School Faculty, and Administrators ........67
Sexual Abuse .........................................................................................................74
Emotional Neglect .................................................................................................76
Physical Neglect.....................................................................................................79
Loss of Parent(s): Separation, Divorce, Abandonment, or Death ..........................82
Separation ..................................................................................................82
Divorce .......................................................................................................83
Abandonment .............................................................................................85
Death ..........................................................................................................88