The Contribution of Traditional Agroecological Knowledge as a Digital Commons to Agroecological

14 Pages·2017·1.52 MB·English

sustainability
Article
The Contribution of Traditional Agroecological
Knowledge as a Digital Commons to Agroecological
Transitions: The Case of the CONECT-e Platform
LauraCalvet-Mir1,2,* ,PetraBenyei2 ,LauraAceituno-Mata3,ManuelPardo-de-Santayana4,
DanielLópez-García5,MaríaCarrascosa-García3,AntonioPerdomo-Molina3,6
andVictoriaReyes-García2,7
1 InternetInterdisciplinaryInstitute(IN3),UniversitatObertadeCatalunya,Av.CarlFriedrichGauss,
5.ParcMediterranidelaTecnologia,Castelldefels,08860Barcelona,Spain
2 InstitutdeCiènciaiTecnologiaAmbientals(ICTA),UniversitatAutònomadeBarcelona,Bellatera,
08193Barcelona,Spain;[email protected](P.B.);[email protected](V.R.-G.)
3 ReddeSemillas“ResembrandoeIntercambiando”,CaracoladelCir,ParquedeSanJerónimos/n,
41015Sevilla,Spain;[email protected](L.A.-M.);[email protected](M.C.-G.);
[email protected](A.P.-M.)
4 DepartamentodeBiología(Botánica),UniversidadAutónomadeMadrid,C/Darwin,
2.CiudadUniversiariadeCantoblanco,28049Madrid,Spain;[email protected]
5 FundaciónEntretantos,CalleAntonioLorenzoHurtado,1,47014Valladolid,Spain;
[email protected]
6 UniversidaddelaLaguna,CallePadreHerrera,s/n,SanCristóbaldeLaLaguna,
38200SantaCruzdeTenerife,Spain
7 InstitucióCatalanadeRecercaiEstudisAvançats(ICREA),Pg.LluísCompanys23,08010Barcelona,Spain
* Correspondence:[email protected]@uoc.edu;Tel.:[phone]
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:1)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:8)(cid:1)
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)
Received:18July2018;Accepted:3September2018;Published:8September2018
Abstract:Traditionalagroecologicalknowledge(TAeK)referstothecumulativeandevolvingbodyof
knowledge,practices,beliefs,institutions,andworldviewsabouttherelationshipsbetweenasociety
orculturalgroupandtheiragroecosystems. Theseknowledgesystemscontributetomaintaining
environmentalandculturallysensitivefoodsystemsandhavebeenconsideredveryrelevantfor
agroecologicaltransitions,ortheprocessesofscaling-upand-outagroecology. However,TAeK’s
erosionandenclosurethreatensitsuseandreproduction,whichinturnmightaffectTAeK’spotential
contributiontoagroecologicaltransitions. Here,weexplorehowtransformingTAeK,andparticularly
TAeKonlandraces,intoadigitalcommonscancontributetoitsmaintenanceandprotection,and
thustoagroecologicaltransitions. WedosobyanalyzingtheCONECT-eplatform,aninitiativefor
digitallystoringandsharingTAeKinaparticipatoryway. Oneyearafterbeinglaunched,CONECT-e
hasdocumented452geographicallydistinctlandracesfrom81differentspecies. Theinformation
shared in this platform is well-structured, clear, and reliable; it thus allows for the replication of
theknowledgereported. Moreover,becauseCONECT-emakesthedocumentedinformationfreely
available and protects it with a copyleft license, placing information in this platform could help
onefacelandracemisappropriationissues. CONECT-e, orsimilarinitiatives, couldcontributeto
agroecologicaltransitionsviamaintainingTAeKunderthedigitalcommonsframework,makingit
accessibletoallsocietyandavoidingenclosureprocesses.
Keywords: agri-food system; agroecology; agroecosystem; copyleft license; enclosure; erosion;
landrace;localknowledge;misappropriation;social-ecologicalsystem
Sustainability2018,10,3214;doi:10.3390/su10093214 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability2018,10,3214 2of14
1. Introduction
TraditionalAgroecologicalKnowledge(TAeK)referstothecumulativeandevolvingbodyof
knowledge,practices,beliefs,institutions,andworldviewsabouttherelationshipsbetweenasocietyor
culturalgroupandtheiragroecosystems(adaptedfrom[1]). ExamplesofTAeKincludepracticesand
beliefsrelatedtoagroecosystemmanagement[2,3],knowledgeaboutlandraces[4,5],orcosmovisions
andinstitutionsregulatingthemanagementofresourcesusedinagriculturesuchaswater[6]. TAeKis
culturallytransmittedfromgenerationtogeneration,anditevolvesandadaptstothelocalenvironment
andtheculturalcontexts[7–10]. TAeKsystemsencompassinformationabouthowtorecognizeand
efficientlymanageagriculturallandscapesandelementsoftheagroecosysteminenvironmentallyand
culturallyadaptedways[9,11]. WhileTAeKdrawsfromhistoricalandintergenerationalcontinuity
in resource management, it should not be considered static or in isolation from other knowledge
systems[12]. Rather,TAeKisconstantchangingandhasshownthecapacitytoadaptandco-exist
withotherfarmingsystems,includingindustrialagriculture,inadynamicprocessthatencompassesa
complexmixofknowledgereplication,loss,addition,andtransformation[12]. Recentworksuggests
that,aswithothertypesofknowledge[13–15],TAeKhasbeentraditionallymanagedasacommon
resource: aresourcegovernedbyagroupofpeoplewhohaveself-developedrulestohandlethesocial
dilemmasderivedfromitscollectiveuse,i.e.,situationsinwhichthereisaconflictbetweenimmediate
individualself-interestandlong-termcollectiveinterest[9].
Researchershavehighlightedthatknowledgeembeddedintraditionalagriculturalsystemsis
relevantforsocial-ecologicalsustainability[16],particularlyinsituationsofchangeorwhenuncertainty
ishigh[12]. Forexample,researchershavearguedthatconsideringcurrentdemographic,economic,
andculturalchanges,theconservationofdiversifiedagroecosystems(e.g.,dehesas,homegardens)
requiresthemaintenanceandapplicationofTAeK[12,17,18]. TAeKhasalsobeenreportedtobevery
relevantforagroecologicaltransitionsortheprocessesofscaling-upand-outagroecology. Indeed,
different bodies of research have documented the relevance of TAeK for the ecological, cultural,
economic,social,spiritual,andpoliticaldimensionsofagroecologicaltransitions[19–24]. Aparticular
domain of TAeK that can be very relevant to agroecological transitions is TAeK on landraces [25].
We define landraces as a group of plants of a particular botanical taxon selected by farmers from
amongdomesticatedorwildspecies,resultingincropsthatareadaptedtothelocalenvironmental
conditionsandthelocalagrarianculture[26–29]. TAeKonlandracesincludesinformationregarding
landraces’morphologic,agronomic,andsensorialcharacteristicsthatguidesthelocalevaluationand
selectioncriteria. Italsocompriseslandracemanagementpractices(e.g.,sowing,planting,harvesting
calendar,typeofmanure,rotations,andstoring)anduses(e.g.,culinary,fodder,andmedicinal)[30].
TAeKonlandracescancontributetothedifferentdimensionsofagroecologicaltransitions. Being
dynamicpopulationsadaptedtochanginglocalenvironmentalconditionsandrequirements[31,32],
landraces have a low dependence on external inputs like pesticides or fertilizers [33–35]. In that
sense, TAeK on landraces includes pest and soil control management practices that build on the
interactionbetweenthenaturalelementsoftheagroecosystemandthusoffersanalternativetotheuse
ofchemicalpesticidesandfertilizers. TAeKonlandracesalsoallowslandracesmaintenanceandthus
fosterscultivatedbiodiversityandpromotesagroecosystemredesignusingabiodiversityintensive
strategy [36]. These characteristics make landraces and their associated knowledge very relevant
totheecologicandeconomicdimensionsofagroecologicaltransitions. Furthermore,landracesand
theirassociatedknowledgearepartofthecontemporary’snaturalandculturalheritage[37],whichis
deeplyrootedinthesocio-culturalidentityofagrariancommunities[28]andpartoftheirbiocultural
memory,orthecurrentexpressionofalonghistoricallegacyofinterrelationshipsbetweenhuman
beingsandnature[38,39],includingthecirculationofcropspeciesandbiologicalinnovations[40].
Thisrelationmakeslandracesandtheirassociatedknowledgeveryrelevanttothesocialandcultural
dimensionsofagroecologicaltransitions. Additionally,somelandracesandtheirassociatedknowledge
allowfarmerstoreduceproductioncostsandachievepremiumpricesthatareabletoeconomically
sustainalternativeortraditional-non-industrial-farmingpractices[5],forwhichlandracescanalso
Sustainability2018,10,3214 3of14
contribute to the economic dimension of agroecological transitions. Lastly, peasant communities
understandtheneedforandfighttohaveaccesstolandracesandassociatedTAeKsothattheycan
usethemasanalternativetogeneticallymodifiedorganisms(GMOs)andhybridseedscontrolledby
corporations[23,41]. Thisconcernmakeslandracesandtheirassociatedknowledgeveryrelevantto
thesocialandpoliticaldimensionsofagroecologicaltransitions.
Different voices have underlined the threats that TAeK systems face due to their erosion
and enclosure [25,42,43]. TAeK on landraces is rapidly eroding due to factors such as loss of
inter-generationalcommunication[2]ortheindustrializationoftheagriculturalsystem[18]. Moreover,
enclosureissues,suchasmisappropriationofnamesortheestablishmentoflandrace’spatentsgranted
to breeders or companies, are of great concern to farmers, NGOs, and scientists who have raised
voicesdemandingtheprotectionoflandracesandtheirassociatedknowledgeundera“commons”
framework[9,25,44].
Because of the role of TAeK on landraces in facilitating agroecological transitions, its erosion
ormisappropriationmighthavepotentiallynegativeimplicationsfortheseprocesses[45]. Several
approacheshavebeenproposedtopreventtheerosionandmisappropriationofTAeKonlandraces,
includingtheapplicationofIntellectualPropertyRightstocompensatefarmers[44]orthemanagement
oflandracesaspublicgoods[46].Here,weanalyzeanapproachthattriestoincludeTAeKonlandraces
underthedigitalcommonsframework,inwhichknowledgeispossessedandsharedcollectivelyand
remainsopenlyavailable[47]. Specifically,weanalyzethepotentialoftheCONECT-eplatform,an
initiativefordigitallystoring,sharing,andprotectingtraditionalknowledgeinaparticipatoryway,asa
waytopreventTAeKonlandraceserosionandtocontestitsenclosure[9]. WeanalyzehowCONECT-e
cancontributeto(1)documentTAeKonlandraces,(2)sharingthisknowledgeinareproducibleformat,
and(3)protectingitfromenclosure. Inthelastsection, wediscusshowachievingthesegoalscan
contributetoagroecologicaltransitionsandthelimitationsthatthisapproachmightface.
2. MaterialsandMethods
2.1. TheCONECT-ePlatform
CONECT-e(www.conecte.es)isacitizenscienceinitiativefundedbySpanishpublicinstitutions
aimingtoobtaincivilsocietycollaborationinthedocumentationandsharingoftraditionalecological
knowledgeandpractices. CONECT-ewasbornoutoftheneedtoencouragecitizen’sparticipation
in the Spanish Inventory of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (a static bibliographic compilation
of ethnobotanical knowledge [48,49]). The current version of the platform, launched publicly in
February2017,includessectionsfocusingontraditionalknowledgeregardingplants,landraces,and
ecosystems. ACreativeCommonsAttribution-ShareAlike4.0InternationalLicense(CCBY-SA4.0)
protectsallthecontentofCONECT-eplatform. Thislicenserequiresthatanyproductusingoriginalor
modifiedcontentfromCONECT-eisprotectedunderthesamecopyleftlicense,thusimpedingthe
establishmentofcopyrightsortrademarksoverit. Theneedtocreateadynamicinventoryoflandraces
andassociatedknowledgetocontestenclosureissuesmotivatedthecreationofthesectiononlandraces.
Thissectionmainlydocumentsinformationonlandracesnames,uses,andmanagement. Thestructure
of CONECT-e’s landrace section has been co-created by scientists from Spanish universities and
researchcenters(UAB,UB,UAM,UOC,ICTA,IBB,andIMIDRA)workingontheSpanishInventory
ofTraditionalEcologicalKnowledgeandmembersofacivilsocietyorganizationthatpromotesthe
commonsmanagementoflandracesandfarmer´svarietiesintheagri-foodsystem,theSpanishSeed
Network: ReddeSemillas“ResembrandoeIntercambiando”(RdS;http://www.redsemillas.info/).
2.2. DataCollectionandAnalysis
Weuseddifferentdatacollectionanddataanalysismethodstoachievethethreeobjectivesofthis
work. First,toassesswhetherCONECT-econtributestothedocumentationofTAeKonlandraces,
weexploredtheinformationenteredbyusersintheCONECT-eplatform. Weconsideredanentryasa
Sustainability2018,10,3214 4of14
crSeuasttaiionanbiolitfy c2o01n8t,e 1n0,t xo FfOaRn PyEEkRin RdE.VTIEhWe C ONECT-eplatformislinkedtoadatabasewithtablesc4o ollfe 1c5t ing
informationonusers’profile,users’activity,andcontentprovidedbyusers. Here,weanalyzethe
coann teennttryin atsr oad curceeadtiobny ouf sceornsteinnt tohfe alnayn dkrinadce. Tshecet CioOnNbEeCtwTe-ee nplFaetfborruma riys l2in0k1e7da tnod a Mdaatracbhas2e0 1w8i.thT his
tables collecting information on users’ profile, users’ activity, and content provided by users. Here,
datasetincludesinformationrequiredtoidentifythelandrace,includinglandraces’name,species,and
we analyze the content introduced by users in the landrace section between February 2017 and March
location. Italsoincludeseightdifferentsections: (1)vernacularname,(2)description,(3)traditional
2018. This dataset includes information required to identify the landrace, including landraces’ name,
use, (4) traditional management, (5) images, (6) map, (7) references, and (8) seed providers. Each
species, and location. It also includes eight different sections: (1) vernacular name, (2) description, (3)
sectionhasdifferentfields. Forexample, thesectiononvernacularnameshasfivedifferentfields:
traditional use, (4) traditional management, (5) images, (6) map, (7) references, and (8) seed providers.
(i)Spanishname,(ii)Catalanname,(iii)Basquename,(iv)Galicianname,and(v)othernames. Intotal,
Each section has different fields. For example, the section on vernacular names has five different
thereare41fieldsintheeightsections. Weuseddescriptivestatisticstoanalyzethesevariablesand
fields: (i) Spanish name, (ii) Catalan name, (iii) Basque name, (iv) Galician name, and (v) other names.
assesstheleveloflandracesdocumentationintheplatform.
In total, there are 41 fields in the eight sections. We used descriptive statistics to analyze these
Second, to assess whether CONECT-e has contributed to the sharing of TAeK on landraces,
variables and assess the level of landraces documentation in the platform.
weanalyzedthequalityandreproducibilityoftheinformationintheplatformandthenumberof
Second, to assess whether CONECT-e has contributed to the sharing of TAeK on landraces, we
visitstothelandrace’pages. Regardingthecontentquality,CONECT-eusesseveralfilterstoassure
analyzed the quality and reproducibility of the information in the platform and the number of visits
intofo rthmea ltaionndraaccceu’ rpaacgye.s.S pReecgiafircdailnlyg, tuhsee rcsonatreenet nqcuoaulritayg, eCdOtNoEpCroTv-eid uespesh osteovgerraalp hfislteorfs thtoe alassnudrrea ces
(Finigfourrmea1t)i,otno alocccuartaectyh. eSmpeucinfiiccaipllayl,i tuiesesrws ahreer eenthcoeulraangderda ctoe ipsrcouvlitdiev aptheodtoagnrdapuhsse do,f atnhed ltaonrderpacoerst the
d(iFffiegruernet 1n)a, mto elsoctahtaet tahela mndurnaicciepmaliitgiehst wrehceerive ethine leaancdhraloceca itsi ocnul(tiFviagtuerde a2n)d. Luosceadt,i nangdt htoe lraenpdorrta cthees not
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hoenlplys pinroivdiednetsi fay vinisguasly rneopnreysmeniteast.ioMn oorf ethoev egre,oagrtaepamhicoafl deidsittroibrustvioanli odfa tthees laalnldthraecein, bfourtm it aatlisoon heelnptse red
ininC iOdeNnEtiCfyTin-eg bseyfnoorneyimtiisesm. aMdoerepouvbelri,c aal ltyeaamva oilfa beldei.toArsl lvtahleidseatteoso alsll htehlep itnofovremriaftyioann denvtearleidda itne the
inCfOorNmEaCtiTo-ne ,bceofnotrrei bitu tiisn mgatodet hpeuabcliccuarllayc yavoafiltahbelein. fAolrlm thaetisoen todoislsp lhaeylped too nvetrhiefyp alantdfo vrmali.dTaotea tnhael yze
thinefqourmalaittyioann, dcotnhterirbeuptrinogd utoc itbhieli tayccoufrTaAcye Kof otnhel ainnfdorramceastidono cduimspelnayteedd ionnC thOeN pElaCtTfo-rem,w. Teou saendalcyoznet ent
the quality and the reproducibility of TAeK on landraces documented in CONECT-e, we used content
analysis. Specifically,weselectedthetextinthe“description”,“traditionalmanagement”,and“seed
analysis. Specifically, we selected the text in the "description,", "traditional management", and "seed
providers”sections,sinceinformationinthesesectionswouldallowausertoreplicateinthefield
providers" sections, since information in these sections would allow a user to replicate in the field the
theknowledgeenteredintheplatform. Weobtained528textpieces,withanaveragecontentlength
knowledge entered in the platform. We obtained 528 text pieces, with an average content length of
of 125 characters, with some content being as short as six characters. We conducted a systematic
125 characters, with some content being as short as six characters. We conducted a systematic reading
readingofthesedatalookingforthepresenceofmeaningfulpatternspotentiallyindicatingaccuracy
of these data looking for the presence of meaningful patterns potentially indicating accuracy and
andreproducibility. Weanalyzedifthecontentgaveenoughdetailsandwassufficientlywellwritten
reproducibility. We analyzed if the content gave enough details and was sufficiently well written to
toallowforanexternalreadertoputitinpractice. Wethenselectedtextualquotesextractedfrom
allow for an external reader to put it in practice. We then selected textual quotes extracted from these
thesetextpiecestoexemplifythequalityandreproducibilityofTAeKonlandracesdocumentedby
text pieces to exemplify the quality and reproducibility of TAeK on landraces documented by
CONECT-e. WealsoanalyzedthenumberofvisitstoCONECT-e’spages. Forthis,weusedGoogle
CONECT-e. We also analyzed the number of visits to CONECT-e’s pages. For this, we used Google
Analytics, a software that uses tracking codes and cookies to acquire information on a website’s
Analytics, a software that uses tracking codes and cookies to acquire information on a website’s user
u[s5e0r] [5an0]da pnrdodpuroceddu cseudmsmuamrym mareytrmicest rriecgsarredginagrd tihneg nthuemnbuerm obfe rviosfitvs itsoit sthteo tlahnedlraancder pacaegep aagned aintsd its
ddififfefreerenntts seeccttiioonnss..

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Sustainability2018,10,3214 5of14
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adnodcunmoteendtetdh aonsed tnhoattedc othuoldseh thavate ceoxuplder hieanvcee edxpeenrcileonscuerde .enWcloestuhreen. Wgea tthheerne dgaitnhfeorremd aintifoonrmthatriooung h
itnhfroorumgahl cinofnovrmerasal tcioonnvsewrsiathtiomnes mwbiethrs mofemthbeeRrsd Sofa nthde gRredyS laitnedra gturerey (lii.tee.r,aptruerses (rie.ele.,a psere,srse proelretsa,sea,n d
reports, and articles) to catalog the landraces threatened and characterized the enclosure’s processes.
articles)tocatalogthelandracesthreatenedandcharacterizedtheenclosure’sprocesses.
All the analysis was fed by our involvement in the Spanish Inventory of Traditional Knowledge
AlltheanalysiswasfedbyourinvolvementintheSpanishInventoryofTraditionalKnowledge
on Agricultural Biodiversity, since five of the authors of the present article are part of the project, and
onAgriculturalBiodiversity,sincefiveoftheauthorsofthepresentarticlearepartoftheproject,and
by our active participation in the RdS, since three of the authors are lively members of the
byouractiveparticipationintheRdS,sincethreeoftheauthorsarelivelymembersoftheorganization.
organization. Participation in these two initiatives grants us a deep understanding of the dynamics
Participation in these two initiatives grants us a deep understanding of the dynamics of TAeK on
of TAeK on landraces in Spain.
landracesinSpain.
3. Results
3. Results
One year after its launch, the CONECT-e platform had more than 150,000 visits, 467 users
One year after its launch, the CONECT-e platform had more than 150,000 visits, 467 users
registered, and over 19,000 entries. From all the visits to the platform, 27,057 (18.04%) corresponded
registered,andover19,000entries. Fromallthevisitstotheplatform,27,057(18.04%)corresponded
to visits to the landraces pages. From the users registered, 40 (8.6%) created or modified content on
tovisitstothelandracespages. Fromtheusersregistered,40(8.6%)createdormodifiedcontenton
landraces, producing a total of 1892 entries (or 10% of the total entries in the platform).
landraces,producingatotalof1892entries(or10%ofthetotalentriesintheplatform).
3.1. Landraces Documented in CONECT-e
3.1. LandracesDocumentedinCONECT-e
CONECT-e users documented 452 geographically distinct landraces from 81 different species
CONECT-eusersdocumented452geographicallydistinctlandracesfrom81differentspeciesand
and 86 taxa. The crop species with more landraces were tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), with 68
86taxa. Thecropspecieswithmorelandracesweretomato(Solanumlycopersicum),with68landraces
landraces (or 15.04% of the total); bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), with 45 landraces; and pepper (Capsicum
(or15.04%ofthetotal);bean(Phaseolusvulgaris),with45landraces;andpepper(Capsicumannuum),
annuum), with 34 different landraces documented (Table 1).
with34differentlandracesdocumented(Table1).

TheCONECT-eplatformdocumentedlandraceslocatedin96(29.4%)ofthe327Spanishregions
(‘comarcas’inSpanish)and14ofits17autonomouscommunities(Figure3). Theregionswithmore
landraces documented were Isla de La Palma (38 landraces) and Norte de Tenerife (35 landraces),
both in the Canary Islands. Other regions with a high number of landraces documented were
Lozoya-Somosierra (Madrid) with 34 landraces and Mallorca (Balearic Islands) with 32 landraces.
Theunequalgeographicdistributiondoesnotnecessarilyrepresentahighestnumberoflandracesin
Sustainability2018,10,3214 6of14
theseregions,sinceCONECT-edoesnotregisterallthelandracesofoneregionbutjustthelandraces
thattheusersentered.
Table1.CropspecieswithmorethanfivelandracesdocumentedinCONECT-e.
ScientificName EnglishCommonName Number(%)ofLandraces
Solanumlycopersicum Tomato 68(15.04)
Phaseolusvulgaris Bean 45(9.96)
Capsicumannuum Pepper 34(7.52)
Prunusdulcis Almond 21(4.65)
Brassicaoleracea Cabbage,broccoli,andcauliflower,amongothers 19(4.20)
Solanummelongena Eggplant 17(3.76)
Pyruscommunis Pear 16(3.54)
Solanumtuberosum Potato 16(3.54)
Malusdomestica Apple 15(3.32)
Lactucasativa Lettuce 14(3.10)
Alliumcepa Onion 13(2.88)
Zeamays Corn 9(1.99)
Citrussinensis Orange 8(1.77)
Cucumismelo Melon 8(1.77)
Ficuscarica Fig 8(1.77)
Vitisvinifera Grape 8(1.77)
Pisumsativum Pea 7(1.55)
Viciafaba Broadbean 7(1.55)
Cucurbitamaxima Pumpkin 6(1.33)
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FFiigguurree 33.. GGeeooggrraapphhiiccaall ddiissttrriibbuuttiioonn ooff llaannddrraacceess ddooccuummeenntteedd iinn CCOONNEECCTT--ee..
Users contributed information in 39 of the 41 possible fields. The fields for which participants
contributed more data were "images", with 521 photos uploaded, and "traditional uses and
management", with 434 entries on the location of landraces’ traditional uses and management. These
were followed by the fields “plant description and part used”, with 116 entries, “Spanish vernacular
names”, with 115 names recorded, “references and links”, with 83 entries documenting references on
specific landraces, “taste, flavor and texture”, with 63 entries, and “crop cycle”, with 55 entries
indicating the adequate time for sowing, planting, or harvesting. Some fields, such as “Galician
vernacular name” (one of the official languages in the Spanish state) or “medicinal", “fuel", and
“construction uses", had no entries.
3.2. TAeK on Landraces Shared in CONECT-e
About one-fourth of the total number of entries on landraces (528 entries or 27.91%)
corresponded to information entered in one of the three sections that would allow applying the
knowledge documented (i.e., description, traditional management, and seed providers). Moreover,
127 landraces (28%) had at least one entry in one of these three sections, and 54 (12%) had four or
more information entries in one or more of the fields from these sections. The landraces with more
information on these sections were “mongeta del ganxet” (Phaseolus vulgaris, bean); “patata fina”
(Solanum tuberosum, potato), with information from 16 fields out of 19 possible; and “judía plancheta”
(Phaseolus vulgaris, bean), with 13 fields completed.
The content analysis of these entries showed that the information gathered is well-structured,
clear, and reliable. The information registered might allow the replication of the knowledge reported.
For instance, the field on “crop cycle” in the “description” section allowed for the inclusion of TAeK
on the sowing, planting, and harvesting periods of each specific landrace. Users added this detailed
information for some landraces, such as in the case of “guindilla de Zalla” (Capsicum annuum,
pepper). Data includes the specific months when this landrace is sowed in the seedbed, transplanted,
and harvested. Similarly, the field "pest and diseases" on the "traditional management” section
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Userscontributedinformationin39ofthe41possiblefields. Thefieldsforwhichparticipants
contributed more data were “images”, with 521 photos uploaded, and “traditional uses and
management”,with434entriesonthelocationoflandraces’traditionalusesandmanagement. These
werefollowedbythefields“plantdescriptionandpartused”,with116entries,“Spanishvernacular
names”,with115namesrecorded,“referencesandlinks”,with83entriesdocumentingreferences
onspecificlandraces,“taste,flavorandtexture”,with63entries,and“cropcycle”,with55entries
indicating the adequate time for sowing, planting, or harvesting. Some fields, such as “Galician
vernacular name” (one of the official languages in the Spanish state) or “medicinal", “fuel”, and
“constructionuses”,hadnoentries.
3.2. TAeKonLandracesSharedinCONECT-e
Aboutone-fourthofthetotalnumberofentriesonlandraces(528entriesor27.91%)corresponded
to information entered in one of the three sections that would allow applying the knowledge
documented(i.e.,description,traditionalmanagement,andseedproviders). Moreover,127landraces
(28%)hadatleastoneentryinoneofthesethreesections,and54(12%)hadfourormoreinformation
entries in one or more of the fields from these sections. The landraces with more information on
thesesectionswere“mongetadelganxet”(Phaseolusvulgaris,bean);“patatafina”(Solanumtuberosum,
potato),withinformationfrom16fieldsoutof19possible;and“judíaplancheta”(Phaseolusvulgaris,
bean),with13fieldscompleted.
Thecontentanalysisoftheseentriesshowedthattheinformationgatherediswell-structured,
clear,andreliable. Theinformationregisteredmightallowthereplicationoftheknowledgereported.
Forinstance,thefieldon“cropcycle”inthe“description”sectionallowedfortheinclusionofTAeK
onthesowing,planting,andharvestingperiodsofeachspecificlandrace. Usersaddedthisdetailed
informationforsomelandraces,suchasinthecaseof“guindilladeZalla”(Capsicumannuum,pepper).
Data includes the specific months when this landrace is sowed in the seedbed, transplanted, and
harvested. Similarly,thefield“pestanddiseases”onthe“traditionalmanagement”sectionallowedfor
theenteringofaccuratedescriptionsofthemostprominentpestanddiseasesofeachlandrace,aswell
as evaluationsof thelandrace’s adaptationto the agroecosystem. In the caseof “nabode Morcín”
(Brassicanapusvar. rapifera,rutabaga),usersenteredinformationacknowledgingthatthisisavery
resistantlandrace,althoughitcansuffertheattackofcruciferfleabeetle(Phyllotretacruciferae)when
growingathightemperatures. Finally,inthesectionon“seedproviders”,usersenteredthename
ofspecificlandrace’ssuppliers. Inthecaseof“lechugamoruna”(Lactucasativa,lettuce),“LaTroje”
association(www.latroje.org)canprovidebothseedsandseedlings.
Regarding the dissemination of this content, we found that the most visited sections in the
landraces’pageswere“description”and“vernacularnames”(3303and2129visitseach),whilethe
leastvisitedsectionswere“seedproviders”(920),“map”(809),and“documents”(462). Considering
theinformationgatheredandthenumberofvisits,themost“popular”landracesare“mongetadel
ganxet”(Phaseolusvulgaris,bean),with181entriesand319visits;“boniatosaucero”(Ipomoeabatatas,
sweetpotato),with37informationentriesand751visits;and“bubango”(Cucurbitapepo,zucchini),with
42entriesand727visits. Otherhighlypopularlandracesare“patatafina”(Solanumtuberosum,potato),
with38entriesand164visits;“nabodeMorcín”(Brassicanapusvar. rapifera,rutabaga),with33entries
and526visits;“perodeAragón”(Malusdomestica,apple),with24entriesand400visits;and“tomaca
quarentena”(Solanumlycopersicum,tomato),with19entriesand162visits. Thesesevenmostpopular
landracescamefromsevendifferentregionsofSpainandsixdifferentautonomouscommunities.
3.3. ThreatenedLandracesDocumentedinCONECT-e
Three of the landraces documented in CONECT-e suffer or have suffered from enclosure:
“tomàtiga de ramellet” (Solanum lycopersicum, tomato), “bubango” (Cucurbita pepo, zucchini), and
“mongetadelganxet”(Phaseolusvulgaris,bean). Thesethreelandracesresembleoneanotherinthat
theyareverypopularintheirterritoriesandaremuchindemandbylocalconsumers. Moreover,their
Sustainability2018,10,3214 8of14
vernacularnamesareattachedtoasignificantculturalrichnessaroundtheiruseandmanagement
andrepresentasignofculturalidentityintheregionswheretheygrow. Interestingly,theselandraces
wereamongthebestdescribedintheplatform,mostlikelyduetotheinterestofthedifferentlocal
seednetworksindocumentingtheselandracesthoroughlyintheireffortstoprotectthem.
Inthecasesof“tomàtigaderamellet”and“bubango”,twocompaniestriedtoappropriatethe
nameoftheselandracestomarketcommercialvarietiesunderthesenames,thusbenefitingfromthe
popularityofthelandraces. “Tomàtigaderamellet”isalandracefromMallorcaIslandveryrooted
inthetraditionalgastronomy,asitistheonlytomatothatcanbepreservedthroughoutthewinter.
Thelandraceisalsousedforthepreparationofoneofthemosttypicaldishesoftheisland: breadwith
tomatoandoil. In2010,twoseedcompaniesproposedtocreateaProtectedGeographicalIndication
(PGI)underthename“tomàtigaderamellet”. ThisPGI,however,wouldincludeahybridvarietythat
hadneitherthelandracecapacityforconservationnoritssmellortaste. Toavoidthemisappropriation
ofthename,in2012the“AssociaciódeVarietatsLocalsdelesIllesBalears”(Associationoflandraces
fromBalearicIslands,partofRdS)registeredthe“tomàtigadelramellet”asaconservationvarietyin
theCommercialVarietyRegisteroftheSpanishMinistryofAgriculture(MAPAMA)[51]. However,
hybridvarietiesarenowadayssoldunderthenameof“tomàtigad´enfilar”(inwhich“enfilar”refers
to the traditional management practice of tying the “tomàtiga del ramellet” with a thread to keep
them during the winter in a cool and dry place) [52]. Our informants from the RdS stated that
giventhatregistrationasaconservationvarietycouldhelpprotectlandracesandlandrace’snames
from misappropriation, the RdS promotes the active registration of landraces, especially of those
underriskofmisappropriation. However,registrationrequiresahighleveloflandracehomogeneity,
acharacteristicnotfoundinmanylandraces,forwhichonlyasmallpercentageoflandracescanbe
registeredunderthislegalcategory.
A second variety that faces misappropriation issues is “bubango”, a landrace from Tenerife
(CanaryIslands),whosehistoricalreferencesgobackto1770[53]. Thislandracehasrecognizedquality
andprestigeaspartofthetraditionalCanariangastronomy. Inrecentdecades,commercialvarietiesof
roundzucchinisarebeingsoldunderthenameof“bubangos”. Thesevarietieshavedifferentquality
andtypeofmanagementthantheoriginalbubango[54],buttheuseofthenameallowscompanies
to set a higher selling price [55]. The “Red Canaria de Semillas” (Canary Seed Network, part of
theRdS)hasworkedonthecultivation,multiplication,anddescriptionofthelandracetoproceed
to its registration in the registry of conservation varieties of the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture.
Moreover,ithasengagedindocumentation,communication,anddenunciationcampaigntohaltthe
misappropriationofitsname(http://www.redsemillas.info/operacion-bubango/).
Thecaseof“mongetadelganxet”isslightlydifferent, asinthiscasetheappropriationofthe
landracenameimpliesamonopolythatcouldlimitfarmers’rightsoverthelandrace. “Mongetadel
ganxet” is a landrace cultivated in different regions of Catalonia, where it is very appreciated for
its organoleptic features. The creation of a Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) in 2006 limited
to a few regions the area where the landrace could be cultivated, thus limiting farmer’s rights to
produceandtradetheirlandraceoutsidethePDO.Someexpertsarguedthatthislimitationmight
leadtothegeneticerosionof“mongetadelganxet”,since,tobepartofthePDO,thelandracemust
haveparticularmorphologicfeatures,excludingthelargevariabilitywithinthelandracepopulation
managedbyfarmers[56]. Thedocumentationofthislandracein138municipalitiesinCONECT-e
(Figure2)evidencesthatthecultivationof“mongetadelganxet”extendsbeyondthelimitsofthePDO.
4. Discussion
Inthisarticle,weanalyzethepotentialofanonlineplatformtocontributetothedocumentation,
sharing, and protection of TAeK on landraces, a body of knowledge that plays a vital role in
agroecological transitions. In this section, we elaborate on the findings presented above to help
answerafundamentalquestionraisedfromagroecologicalscholars: “Inwhatwayscanwerecapture
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theknowledgedevelopedovercenturiesoftraditionalagriculturalproductionexperience”[19](p.101)
sothatitcontributestoagroecologicaltransitions?[45].
Resultspresentedheresuggestthatparticipatoryonlineprojects,suchasCONECT-e,holdthe
potentialtodocumentaconsiderableamountofTAeKonlandraces,mostlybycompilingscattered
informationinasharedonlinespace. Indeed,thecollaborativecollectionofTAeKonlandracescan
contributetocreatingsynergiesamongdataobtainedthroughstandardethnobotanicalmethods(e.g.,
inventories,semi-structuredinterviews)[57]. Forexample,usingthesamedefinitionoflandracethan
inCONECT-e,previousethnobotanicalstudiesinSpainhavegatheredinformationon133[26],39[28],
or10landraces[5]. Meanwhile,CONECT-edocumented452geographicallydistinctlandraces. While
ethnobotanicalstudiesareaprimaryinputfortheplatform,thecompilationofdispersedlandrace
knowledgeoffersahigherpotentialtoovercometheTAeKerosionthanthepartialdocumentationof
this knowledge [16]. Altieri and colleagues [58] stated that, for scaling-up and -out agroecology,
it is very important to preserve and rescue traditional agroecosystems’ cultural and ecological
foundations,includingtheaccumulatedknowledgeandexperiencerelatedtothemanagementand
useofagrobiodiversity. ThispreservationandrescueofTAeKneedsadequatetools,andweargue
thatatoollikeCONECT-eoffersvastpotentialtodocumentknowledge. Notwithstanding,achieving
widespread documentation of landraces largely depends on civil society participation, for which
thecontinuousdynamizationofCONECT-eseemstobearequirementforsuccess. Onlyaconstant
exchange between researchers, farmers, consumers, and civil society organizations will allow the
developmentofCONECT-e’spotential. Ofparticularimportanceistheparticipationofstrongcitizen
organizationssuchastheRdS,sincetheefforttodocumentlandracesdependsontheircollectivework
ofmonitoringlandracesandreactingtomisappropriationthreats.
WealsofoundthatTAeKonlandraceswasintroducedinCONECT-einawell-structuredandclear
way,makingitpotentiallyreproducible. Inacontextofaworldwideincreaseofsmallfarmers[59],itis
necessarytoprovidetoolsthatallowfarmerstogainincreasedaccesstoTAeK.Thisneedisincreased
inEuropeanterritories,wheretherehasbeenahigherandlongerlastingagriculturalintensification
processthaninotherpartsoftheworld,andwherefarmersdonotalwaysinheritTAeKfromtheir
closekinandkith, aswasdoneinthepast[43,60]. Insuchacontext, atoollikeCONECT-emight
easethesharingofTAeKonlandraces,informationthatmightbecriticalforthosenewlyengagingin
agroecologicaltransitions[42]. Furthermore,bysharingTAeKonlandraces,CONECT-ecouldenhance
theconversionofindustrializedagroecosystemstomorediverseagroecosystems,afundamentalstep
inagroecologicaltransitions[36]. TAeKonlandracescouldalsoprovidesecuritytofarmersagainst
diseases,pest,droughts,andotherstresseswithoutthemhavingtoreverttotheuseofagrochemicals;
the information might also allow farmers to exploit the full range of agroecosystems existing in
eachregion[58,61]. Itshouldbenoted,however,thatdespitethepotentialcontributionoftoolslike
CONECT-etoagroecologicaltransitions,thesetransitionslargelydependonthemassiveadoption
ofadiversityofagroecologicalalternatives[42]. Inthatsense,althoughCONECT-ecanbeatoolfor
sharinglandraceknowledge,farmersmightcontinuefacingdifficultiesincultivatingthelandraces
duetotheEuropeanandSpanishregulationsonplantmaterialreproduction. Theseregulationsare
aparamountobstaclemainlytoartisanalseedproducersandorganicfarmers[62]. Artisanalseed
producersfacetwomainproblemstolegalizetheiractivity: (1)theregulationsinforcedemandfrom
themthesamerequirementsasforlargeseedcompanies,bothregardingthequantityofseedproduced
and infrastructures and (2) they usually work with unregistered landraces. Organic farmers also
faceproblemscultivatinglandracesduetoorganicfarmingregulations[63]thatrequiretheuseof
organicallycertifiedseed,whichexcludesnon-registeredlandraces.
Finally,CONECT-ehasthepotentialtohelpprotectTAeKonlandracesbyapplyingacommons
governancesystem,amovethatgoesinthedirectionoffosteringanemancipatorymovementaimingto
increasethepowerandcontroloffarmersovertheirownresourcesandproduction,acriticalfoundation
forscalingagroecologicaltransitions[23]. Inthisline,CONECT-ealignswithotherinitiativesthat
seekthescaling-upand-outofagroecology[64]throughthedigitalcommonsmovement[47]. These
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initiativesincludeopen-softwareplatformssuchasKatuma,aninitiativethatpromotesagroecological
productionandconsumptionundertheframeworkofthesocialandsolidarityeconomyusingalocal
versionoftheOpenFoodNetworktool(https://openfoodnetwork.org/)[65],orP2PFoodLab’s,an
initiativeaimingatempoweringcitizensinthedevelopmentofinnovativeandsustainablesolutions
that try to re-establish the ties between food production and consumption and educate the public
aboutagroecology[66],orinitiativessuchastheFarmHackthatseektodocument,share,andimprove
farmtoolsandassociatedknowledgewiththeconvictionthattransformingagriculturaltechnology
intoacommonswouldresultinamoreadaptive,open,andresilientfoodsystem[67].
By making TAeK largely accessible to a community of users who should follow certain
managementrules,CONECT-epromotesthedigitaldocumentation,sharing,andprotectionofTAeK
underthedigitalcommonsframework. Inthisframework,informationandknowledgeresourcesare
createdandpossessedcollectivelyorsharedbetweenacommunitythattendstobenon-exclusive,that
is,makingknowledgeavailable(usuallyfreeofcharge)forthirdparties. Moreover,thecommunity
of people who share this knowledge favors its free use and reuse, instead of exchanging it as a
commodity[47].Thedigitalcommonsapproachthenconteststheenclosureoftheknowledgecommons
anddeconstructstheideaofintellectualpropertyrights[13].
In the real world, the commons approach to knowledge has legal implications. For example,
some authors argue that the mere existence of databases could already protect the knowledge in
caseofmisappropriation[68]. However,otherssaythatisnecessarytoimplementalicensingthat
followsacopyleftapproach(suchastheGeneralPublicLicensing,usedcommonlytosecurecopyleft
overopensourcesoftware)tosafeguardTAeKanditscommonsnature(seeforexampletheideason
OpenVarietyRights;[69]). SincelandraceknowledgeinCONECT-eisprotectedundertheCreative
CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike4.0InternationalLicense,CONECT-emayofferapowerfultoolto
counteractagainstTAeKonlandracescommonsenclosure. Moreover,thistypeofregistrationcanbe
usedtoaccountforthe‘notoriouspreviousexistence’ofalandraceandassociatedknowledge(asit
providesanopenlyavailableinventoryofexistinglandraceknowledge). Then,beingdocumented
inCONECT-emakesvarietiesnon-eligibleforformalregistrationasaprotectedvariety(provided
for by the Law 3/2000 of the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture: https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.
php?id=BOE-A-2000-414)[25]. Notwithstanding,CONECT-ecannotpreventmisappropriationon
itsown;instead,itisjustatooltobeusedbycivilsocietyorganizationstofightagainstprivatization
processes. To counteract the enclosure of TAeK on landraces, it would be necessary (1) to have
mechanismsinplaceforcross-checkingthatvarietiessubmittedforregistrationinnationalregisters
arenotalreadyincludedinCONECT-e(orsimilartools),(2)toguaranteeanetworkofmonitorswho
coulddetectmisappropriationprocesses,and(3)tohavetheresourcestoengageinlegalproceedings
whenmisappropriationisobserved[25].
CONECT-e has started the online compilation of TAeK on landraces in Spain, capturing
the attention of potential users. The project now depends on public funding, which has been
securedtoguarantyCONECT-e’scontinuityinthenearbyfuture. However,theprojectwillnotbe
successfulunlessCONECT-ebecomesrelevantforfarmers,consumers,andagrobiodiversity-related
organizations so they are motivated to participate in it. The challenge is not trivial, given that
CONECT-etargetstraditionalknowledgeholderswho,intheSpanishcontext,typicallyarepeoplewith
stronglinkagestotheruralworldand/orelderlypeoplewithlimitedskillsintheuseofinformation
andcommunicationtechnologies. Furtherdynamizationoftheplatformandincreasingcollaboration
withalargenumberofstakeholdersisrequiredtodevelopstrategiesforenlargingCONECT-e’simpact.
The effort, however, also needs to be sustained in the long term and spread through the Spanish
territory,forwhichcontinuousfundingforthecoordinatingteamneedtobesecuredinthelongterm.
Tobecomeadigitalcommon,CONECT-ealsofacesthechallengetoimproveuser’sparticipation,not
onlyininformationsharingbutalsoindecisionmaking.