the chinese education movement in malaysia ang ming chee national university of singapore

405 Pages·2011·2.85 MB·English

INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL MOBILIZATION:
THE CHINESE EDUCATION MOVEMENT IN
MALAYSIA

ANG MING CHEE

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

2011

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INSTITUTIONS AND SOCIAL MOBILIZATION:
THE CHINESE EDUCATION MOVEMENT IN
MALAYSIA

ANG MING CHEE
(MASTER OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES,
UPPSALA UNIVERSITET, SWEDEN)
(BACHELOR OF COMMUNICATION (HONOURS),
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA)

A THESIS SUBMITTED
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

2011

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My utmost gratitude goes first and foremost to my supervisor, Associate Professor
Jamie Seth Davidson, for his enduring support that has helped me overcome many
challenges during my candidacy. His critical supervision and brilliant suggestions have
helped me to mature in my academic thinking and writing skills. Most importantly, his
understanding of my medical condition and readiness to lend a hand warmed my heart
beyond words. I also thank my thesis committee members, Associate Professor Hussin
Mutalib and Associate Professor Goh Beng Lan for their valuable feedback on my
thesis drafts.
I would like to thank the National University of Singapore for providing the
research scholarship that enabled me to concentrate on my thesis as a full-time
doctorate student in the past four years. In particular, I would also like to thank the
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences for partially supporting my fieldwork expenses and
the Faculty Research Cluster for allocating the precious working space. My
appreciation also goes to members of my department, especially the administrative
staff, for their patience and attentive assistance in facilitating various secretarial works.
This thesis would not have been possible without the support from the
following institutions and individuals that facilitated my fieldwork in Malaysia. The
hospitable staff at the Dongzong Department of Resource and Information, Dongzong
Department of Organization Affairs, Jiaozong Executive Office, members of the
Damansara Save Our School movement and all interviewees who willingly participated
in this study. My special appreciation goes to the following facilities that allowed me to
access their valuable collections: National University of Singapore, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Kwangwahyitpoh; Sinchew Daily and Centre for Malaysian Chinese Studies.
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My sincere thanks to Cuc, Chuan Yean and Cui Fen for their critical peer review
and feedback; Dom, Kim and Serena for their cheerful companionship; Siew Keen for
assisting with the technical application, and Pika for scanning the books from the
library. Most importantly, I sincerely appreciate the endless efforts by Tey Li Li for
proofreading and assisting me to overcome the grammatical challenges of completing
this thesis.
Special appreciation goes to the following friends and family members: Lay
San, Siew Yeong and Gaik Tin for facilitating the interviewees’ contacts; Siew Hong
and Seng Chin for enabling me to wheel freely in Malaysia with their car; Sheau Fung
for sharing her office as my workspace in Penang; Sharon Koay for providing delicious
food supplies; Sara Koay for providing cozy accommodation in Selangor; Ananya for
listening to my complaints; Hwee Siang for his cheerful companionship and free rides
to the university; and Supawan for her patience and useful advice during my ups and
downs. I also would like to thank all the medical personnel who took care of me during
my eventful candidacy. For those whom I have not named, please call me up and let me
thank you in person.
Lastly, I owe my achievements today to my beloved family: my father Ang
Cheng Siah, my mother Koay Saw Lye, and my younger brother Ang Ming Chieh. My
family has been supportive and understanding during my long absence all these years;
their love has been the source of my motivation to continue pursuing my dreams and to
be a better person. I hope this doctorate thesis will make them proud.
May the force be with you.

Ang Ming Chee
Singapore, May 2011
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... i
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................... iii
Summary .................................................................................................................. vi
List of Tables.......................................................................................................... viii
List of Figures .......................................................................................................... ix
List of Maps ............................................................................................................. xi
List of Abbreviations .............................................................................................. xii

Chapter One Institutions and Social Mobilization
1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................... 1
1.2. The Chinese Education Movement ................................................................. 4
1.3. Research Questions and Propositions ............................................................. 7
1.4. Social Movements, Resources, Opportunities and Identities ......................... 11
1.5. Social Movements in Non-Liberal, Democratic States .................................. 16
1.6. Social Mobilization in Malaysia ................................................................... 30
1.7. Malaysian Social Movements ....................................................................... 33
1.8. Studies on the Chinese Education Movement ............................................... 37
1.9. Research Methodology ................................................................................. 44
1.10. Scopes and Limitations ................................................................................ 47
1.11. Roadmap of the Thesis ................................................................................. 49

Chapter Two Nation Building and Formation of Social Movement
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 53
2.2. Impact of Communist Threats ...................................................................... 54
2.3. Barnes and Fenn-Wu Reports ....................................................................... 59
2.4. The Grand Three Associations of Chinese Education ................................... 64
2.5. The 1955 Malacca Meeting and 1957 Independence..................................... 68
2.6. Razak Report and Citizenship Registration Movement ................................. 72
2.7. Lim Chong Eu and New MCA ..................................................................... 77
2.8. Rahman Talib Report ................................................................................... 79
2.9. Formation of Malaysia ................................................................................. 83
2.10. Dongjiaozong and Merdeka University Campaign ....................................... 86
2.11. Barisan Nasional and MCA Chinese Unity Movement ................................ 90
2.12. Conclusion ................................................................................................... 92

Chapter Three Challenges and Adaptations
3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 95
3.2. State Structural Control and Constraints on Chinese Schools........................ 98
3.3. The Turning Point ...................................................................................... 105
3.4. The Taming of the Schoolteachers ............................................................. 111
3.5. Competition with the National Union of the Teaching Profession ............... 114
3.6. School Principals Dominated Chinese Schoolteachers’ Associations .......... 115
3.7. The Trojan Horse ....................................................................................... 117
3.8. Conclusion ................................................................................................. 129

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Chapter Four Leaders, Alliances and Politics
4.1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 132
4.2. Political Pressure, Process and Opportunities ............................................. 134
4.3. Merdeka University Lawsuit ...................................................................... 137
4.4. The Alliance of Three ................................................................................ 140
4.5. Alliances with the Chinese Guilds and Associations ................................... 143
4.6. Tianhou Temple Assembly and Operasi Lalang ......................................... 149
4.7. Reform and Reconciliation ......................................................................... 152
4.8. The Dual Coalition System ........................................................................ 154
4.9. From Resistance to Negotiation.................................................................. 156
4.10. Formation of Tanglian and Challenges of Chinese Unity............................ 159
4.11. Resource Mobilization ............................................................................... 162
4.12. Interactions with the State (1995–2000) ..................................................... 164
4.13. Reformasi and Suqiu .................................................................................. 167
4.14. Post-Mahathir Mohamad Malaysia ............................................................. 171
4.15. The 2008 Political Tsunami........................................................................ 174
4.16. Conclusion ................................................................................................. 178

Chapter Five Mobilization Machinery
5.1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 181
5.2. Duzhong Revival Movement ...................................................................... 183
5.3. Duzhong-WC Organization ........................................................................ 186
5.4. The Subcommittees .................................................................................... 194
5.5. The Executive Branch ................................................................................ 198
5.6. Executive Branch Departments .................................................................. 204
5.7. Departure of Bock ...................................................................................... 209
5.8. Huaxiao-WC Organization ......................................................................... 211
5.9. The Executive Branch ................................................................................ 214
5.10. Dongjiaozong Higher Learning Center and New Era College ..................... 219
5.11. Fundraising Campaigns .............................................................................. 221
5.12. A Dream Come True, or the Beginning of a Nightmare? ............................ 223
5.13. Students, Staff and Programs...................................................................... 225
5.14. New Era University .................................................................................... 232
5.15. Conclusion ................................................................................................. 240

Chapter Six Damansara Save Our School Movement
6.1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 245
6.2. Dilemmas of Malaysia’s Chinese Schools .................................................. 247
6.3. Damansara Save Our School Movement Committee .................................. 251
6.4. Institution Design and Constraints .............................................................. 260
6.5. The Temple School .................................................................................... 263
6.6. Defending the School Premises .................................................................. 269
6.7. Encountering the Police Force .................................................................... 271
6.8. Media Coverage ......................................................................................... 272
6.9. Networks and Alliances ............................................................................. 278
6.10. Tug of War between Political Parties ......................................................... 280
6.11. The Impact of General Elections ................................................................ 284
6.12. Resource Accumulation ............................................................................. 287
6.13. Conclusion ................................................................................................. 291

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Chapter Seven Discussion and Conclusion
7.1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 294
7.2. Chapter Summaries and Their Significance ................................................ 295
7.3. Social Mobilization in Non-Liberal Democracies ....................................... 299
7.4. Constant Resource Mobilization ................................................................. 299
7.5. Relationship with the Non-Liberal Democratic Regime .............................. 307
7.6. Unification of Diversity ............................................................................. 313
7.7. Suggestions for Future Research ................................................................ 318
7.8. Concluding Remarks .................................................................................. 320

Bibliography ......................................................................................................... 322
Appendices ............................................................................................................ 356
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SUMMARY
Why do certain movements persist over a significant period of time while some do not?
How do those that persist sustain themselves and overcome contraints over time,
especially those imposed by non-liberal, democratic states? This thesis examines the
persistence of a minority social movement, despite facing considerable constraints
imposed by a majority-dominated state. Utilizing the Chinese education
movement—arguably Malaysia’s longest-running social movement—as its case study,
this thesis argues that both structural and relational institutions are crucial in a
prolonged movement’s efforts to overcome constraints and sustain social mobilization
in a non-liberal, democratic state.
Two important players of this movement, the United Chinese School
Committees’ Association (Dongzong) and the United Chinese Schoolteachers’
Association (Jiaozong) were established in the backdrop of Malayan nation formation
stage during the 1950s. The movement started in opposition against the British colonial
administration’s threats (and attempts) to marginalize Chinese vernacular schools in the
national education system. Over the years, both Dongzong and Jiaozong have survived
a host of challenges from many quarters, and have endured for six decades while many
other movements have long since been disbanded.
One significant factor behind such persistence has been the structured
mobilization system that has effectively linked movement communities at the school,
local, state and national levels. These strong links have been important for solidifying
the movement’s organizational efforts in facing state-imposed constraints and
suppression. The bottom-up democratic leadership selection system has also bolstered
the legitimacy and the power of negotiation of the movement’s leaders in dealing with
various states agencies.
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The thesis also examines the internal dynamic of the movement, one topic that
has been downplayed by social movement studies. Using interviews and archives
materials in Chinese, Malay and English, this thesis traces the dynamics of the agencies
in mobilizing movement campaigns in the context of various opportunities and
constraints affecting domestic contentious politics. The thesis highlights three factors
that have been crucial to the movement’s endurance: inter-elite networking and
brokerage in mediating the changing relationship between movement and state; the
unique mobilization mechanisms in the form of movement working committees; and
the role of the professional and full-time executive branch that has developed over time
to fulfill the specific needs of the movement.
To link the six-decade-old movement into contemporary Malaysian political
context, the thesis illustrates the participation of the Chinese education movement
activists in the community-based Damansara Save Our School movement in Selangor.
This case study provides crucial discussions on the aforementioned themes, and
articulates the conditions that induce different types of mobilization and processes of
social change in the Chinese community in Malaysia.
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