The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum, Fifth Edition (Chemical Industries)

942 Pages·2014·12.41 MB·English

by  James G. Speight

CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES/137
FIFTH EDITION
T h e C h e m i s t r y
a n d T e c h n o l o g y
o f P e t r o l e u m
J a m e s G . S p e i g h t
FIFTH EDIT ION
T h e C h e m i s t r y
a n d T e c h n o l o g y
o f P e t r o l e u m
CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks
Founding Editor
HEINZ HEINEMANN
Berkeley, California
Series Editor
JAMES G. SPEIGHT
CD & W, Inc.
Laramie, Wyoming
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CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES/137
FIFTH EDIT ION
T h e C h e m i s t r y
a n d T e c h n o l o g y
o f P e t r o l e u m
J a m e s G . S p e i g h t
Boca Raton London New York
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Contents
Preface..........................................................................................................................................xxiii
Author ............................................................................................................................................xxv
SECTION I History, Occurrence, and Recovery
Chapter 1 History and Terminology .............................................................................................3
1.1 Historical Perspectives ......................................................................................3
1.2 Modern Perspectives .........................................................................................9
1.3 Deinitions and Terminology ...........................................................................12
1.4 Native Materials ..............................................................................................14
1.4.1 Petroleum............................................................................................14
1.4.2 Opportunity Crudes and High-Acid Crudes ......................................15
1.4.3 Heavy Oil ...........................................................................................16
1.4.4 Foamy Oil ...........................................................................................16
1.4.5 Extra Heavy Oil ..................................................................................17
1.4.6 Bitumen ..............................................................................................17
1.4.7 Wax .....................................................................................................18
1.4.8 Asphaltite and Asphaltoid ..................................................................18
1.4.9 Bituminous Rock and Bituminous Sand ............................................19
1.4.10 Kerogen ..............................................................................................20
1.4.11 Natural Gas ........................................................................................20
1.5 Manufactured Materials ..................................................................................22
1.5.1 Wax .....................................................................................................22
1.5.2 Resid ...................................................................................................22
1.5.3 Asphalt ...............................................................................................23
1.5.4 Tar and Pitch ......................................................................................23
1.5.5 Coke ....................................................................................................24
1.5.6 Synthetic Crude Oil ............................................................................24
1.6 Derived Materials ............................................................................................24
1.6.1 Asphaltenes, Carbenes, and Carboids ................................................24
1.6.2 Resins and Oils ...................................................................................25
1.7 Oil Prices .........................................................................................................26
1.7.1 Pricing Strategies ...............................................................................26
1.7.2 Oil Price History ................................................................................27
1.7.3 Future of Oil .......................................................................................28
1.7.4 Epilogue..............................................................................................28
References ..................................................................................................................28
Chapter 2 Classiication ..............................................................................................................31
2.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................31
2.2 Classiication Systems .....................................................................................32
2.2.1 Classiication as a Hydrocarbon Resource .........................................32
2.2.2 Classiication by Chemical Composition ...........................................34
2.2.3 Correlation Index ................................................................................35
v
vi Contents
2.2.4 Density ...............................................................................................36
2.2.5 API Gravity .......................................................................................37
2.2.6 Viscosity ............................................................................................38
2.2.7 Carbon Distribution ...........................................................................38
2.2.8 Viscosity-Gravity Constant ...............................................................38
2.2.9 UOP Characterization Factor ............................................................39
2.2.10 Recovery Method ..............................................................................39
2.2.11 Pour Point ..........................................................................................40
2.3 Miscellaneous Systems ....................................................................................41
2.4 Reservoir Classiication ...................................................................................42
2.4.1 Identiication and Quantiication .......................................................42
2.4.2 Future .................................................................................................44
References ..................................................................................................................44
Chapter 3 Origin and Occurrence ...............................................................................................47
3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................47
3.2 Origin ..............................................................................................................47
3.2.1 Abiogenic Origin ...............................................................................48
3.2.2 Biogenic Origin .................................................................................49
3.2.2.1 Deposition of Organic Matter ............................................51
3.2.2.2 Establishment of Source Beds ...........................................51
3.2.2.3 Nature of the Source Material ...........................................53
3.2.2.4 Transformation of Organic Matter into Petroleum ............55
3.2.2.5 Accumulation in Reservoir Sediments ..............................57
3.2.2.6 In Situ Transformation of Petroleum .................................61
3.2.3 Differences between Abiogenic Theory and Biogenic Theory .........64
3.2.4 Relationship of Petroleum Composition and Properties....................65
3.3 Occurrence ......................................................................................................67
3.3.1 Reserves .............................................................................................67
3.3.2 Conventional Petroleum ....................................................................70
3.3.3 Natural Gas ........................................................................................71
3.3.4 Heavy Oil...........................................................................................72
3.3.5 Bitumen .............................................................................................73
References ..................................................................................................................75
Chapter 4 Reservoirs and Reservoir Fluids ................................................................................79
4.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................79
4.2 Reservoirs ........................................................................................................79
4.2.1 Structural Types ................................................................................80
4.2.2 Heterogeneity .....................................................................................81
4.3 Classes of Fluids ..............................................................................................82
4.4 Evaluation of Reservoir Fluids ........................................................................83
4.4.1 Sampling Methods .............................................................................84
4.4.2 Data Acquisition and QA/QC ............................................................85
4.5 Physical Composition and Molecular Weight .................................................87
4.5.1 Asphaltene Separation .......................................................................87
4.5.2 Fractionation ......................................................................................89
4.5.3 Molecular Weight ..............................................................................91
4.6 Reservoir Evaluation .......................................................................................95
References ..................................................................................................................96
Contents vii
Chapter 5 Kerogen ......................................................................................................................99
5.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................99
5.2 Properties .........................................................................................................99
5.3 Composition ...................................................................................................102
5.4 Classiication .................................................................................................102
5.5 Isolation .........................................................................................................104
5.6 Methods for Probing Kerogen Structure .......................................................104
5.6.1 Ultimate (Elemental) Analysis .........................................................104
5.6.2 Functional Group Analysis...............................................................105
5.6.3 Oxidation ..........................................................................................105
5.6.4 Thermal Methods .............................................................................106
5.6.5 Acid-Catalyzed Hydrogenolysis .......................................................107
5.7 Structural Models ..........................................................................................107
5.8 Kerogen Maturation .......................................................................................109
References ................................................................................................................111
Chapter 6 Exploration, Recovery, and Transportation ..............................................................115
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................115
6.2 Exploration ....................................................................................................116
6.2.1 Gravity Methods ...............................................................................117
6.2.2 Magnetic Methods ............................................................................118
6.2.3 Seismic Methods ..............................................................................119
6.2.4 Electrical Methods ...........................................................................119
6.2.5 Electromagnetic Methods.................................................................120
6.2.6 Radioactive Methods ........................................................................120
6.2.7 Borehole Logging .............................................................................120
6.3 Drilling ..........................................................................................................121
6.3.1 Preparing to Drill .............................................................................121
6.3.2 Drilling Equipment ..........................................................................122
6.3.3 Drilling Rig ......................................................................................124
6.3.4 Drilling .............................................................................................125
6.4 Well Completion ............................................................................................125
6.5 Recovery ........................................................................................................126
6.5.1 Primary Recovery ............................................................................128
6.5.2 Secondary Recovery.........................................................................130
6.5.3 Enhanced Oil Recovery ...................................................................132
6.6 Products and Product Quality .......................................................................141
6.7 Transportation ...............................................................................................142
References ................................................................................................................147
Chapter 7 Recovery of Heavy Oil and Tar Sand Bitumen ........................................................149
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................149
7.2 Mining ...........................................................................................................153
7.2.1 Tar Sand Mining...............................................................................154
7.2.2 Hot-Water Process ............................................................................156
7.2.3 Other Processes ................................................................................158
7.3 Nonmining Methods ......................................................................................160
7.3.1 Steam-Based Processes ....................................................................161
7.3.2 Combustion Processes ......................................................................162
7.3.3 Other Processes ................................................................................165
viii Contents
7.4 Upgrading during Recovery ..........................................................................173
7.4.1 Partial Upgrading at the Surface ......................................................174
7.4.1.1 Thermal Cracking Processes ............................................175
7.4.1.2 Solvent Processes ..............................................................176
7.4.2 Upgrading during In Situ Recovery .................................................176
7.4.2.1 Steam Distillation .............................................................177
7.4.2.2 Mild Thermal Cracking ....................................................177
7.4.2.3 Partial Combustion ...........................................................178
7.4.2.4 Solvent Deasphalting ........................................................180
7.4.2.5 Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery ...................................181
7.4.3 Epilogue............................................................................................181
References ................................................................................................................182
SECTION II Composition and Properties
Chapter 8 Chemical Composition .............................................................................................187
8.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................187
8.2 Ultimate (Elemental) Composition................................................................188
8.3 Chemical Composition ..................................................................................189
8.3.1 Hydrocarbon Components ................................................................190
8.3.1.1 Parafin Hydrocarbons ......................................................191
8.3.1.2 Cycloparafin Hydrocarbons (Naphthenes) ......................193
8.3.1.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons ...................................................194
8.3.1.4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons ...............................................196
8.3.2 Nonhydrocarbon Components ..........................................................196
8.3.2.1 Sulfur Compounds ............................................................197
8.3.2.2 Oxygen Compounds .........................................................198
8.3.2.3 Nitrogen Compounds ........................................................199
8.3.2.4 Metallic Constituents ........................................................201
8.3.2.5 Porphyrins .........................................................................202
8.4 Chemical Composition by Distillation ..........................................................203
8.4.1 Gases and Naphtha ...........................................................................205
8.4.2 Middle Distillates .............................................................................206
8.4.3 Vacuum Residua (1050°F+) ...............................................................208
References ................................................................................................................208
Chapter 9 Fractional Composition ............................................................................................211
9.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................211
9.2 Distillation .....................................................................................................212
9.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure .......................................................................216
9.2.2 Reduced Pressures ............................................................................216
9.2.3 Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation .............................................218
9.3 Solvent Treatment ..........................................................................................219
9.3.1 Asphaltene Separation ......................................................................221
9.3.1.1 Inluence of Solvent Type ................................................221
9.3.1.2 Inluence of the Degree of Dilution .................................224
Contents ix
9.3.1.3 Inluence of Temperature ...............................................224
9.3.1.4 Inluence of Contact Time .............................................224
9.3.2 Fractionation ..................................................................................225
9.4 Adsorption .....................................................................................................227
9.4.1 Chemical Factors ...........................................................................227
9.4.2 Fractionation Methods ...................................................................228
9.4.2.1 General Methods ............................................................228
9.4.2.2 ASTM Methods .............................................................231
9.5 Chemical Methods .........................................................................................233
9.5.1 Acid Treatment ..............................................................................233
9.5.2 Molecular Complex Formation .....................................................235
9.5.2.1 Urea Adduction ..............................................................235
9.5.2.2 Thiourea Adduction .......................................................236
9.5.2.3 Adduct Composition ......................................................236
9.5.2.4 Adduct Structure ............................................................237
9.5.2.5 Adduct Properties ..........................................................237
9.6 Use of the Data ..............................................................................................238
References ................................................................................................................240
Chapter 10 Petroleum Analysis ...................................................................................................243
10.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................243
10.2 Petroleum Assay ............................................................................................243
10.3 Physical Properties ........................................................................................246
10.3.1 Elemental (Ultimate) Analysis ......................................................246
10.3.2 Density and Speciic Gravity .........................................................247
10.3.3 Viscosity ........................................................................................249
10.3.4 Surface and Interfacial Tension .....................................................251
10.3.5 Metal Content ................................................................................253
10.3.6 Total Acid Number ........................................................................254
10.4 Thermal Properties ........................................................................................254
10.4.1 Volatility ........................................................................................255
10.4.2 Liquefaction and Solidiication......................................................258
10.4.3 Carbon Residue .............................................................................260
10.4.4 Aniline Point .................................................................................261
10.4.5 Speciic Heat ..................................................................................261
10.4.6 Latent Heat ....................................................................................262
10.4.7 Enthalpy or Heat Content ..............................................................262
10.4.8 Thermal Conductivity ...................................................................262
10.4.9 Pressure–Volume–Temperature Relationships ..............................263
10.4.10 Heat of Combustion .......................................................................263
10.4.11 Critical Properties ..........................................................................264
10.5 Electrical Properties ......................................................................................264
10.5.1 Conductivity ..................................................................................264
10.5.2 Dielectric Constant ........................................................................264
10.5.3 Dielectric Strength .........................................................................265
10.5.4 Dielectric Loss and Power Factor ..................................................265
10.5.5 Static Electriication ......................................................................266
10.6 Optical Properties .........................................................................................266
10.6.1 Refractive Index.............................................................................266
10.6.2 Optical Activity .............................................................................267