The Century of Columbus by James J Walsh

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Title: The Century of Columbus

Author: James J. Walsh

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BY THE SAME AUTHOR

FORDHAM UNIVERSITY PRESS SERIES

MAKERS OF MODERN MEDICINE
Lives of the men to whom nineteenth century medical science owes most. Second Edition. New York, 1910. $2.00 net.

THE POPES AND SCIENCE
The story of Papal patronage of the sciences and especially medicine. 45th thousand. New York, 1911. $2.00 net.

MAKERS OF ELECTRICITY
Lives of the men to whom important advances in electricity are due. In collaboration with Brother Potamian, F.S.C., Sc.D. (London), Professor of
Physics at Manhattan College. New York, 1909. $2.00 net.

EDUCATION, HOW OLD THE NEW
Addresses in the history of education on various occasions. 3rd thousand. New York, 1911. $2.00 net.

OLD-TIME MAKERS OF MEDICINE
The story of the students and teachers of the sciences related to medicine during the Middle Ages. New York 1911. $2.00 net.

MODERN PROGRESS AND HISTORY
Academic addresses on How Old the New. New York, 1911. $2.00 net.

THE THIRTEENTH GREATEST OF CENTURIES
5th edition (50,000). 116 illustrations, 600 pages. Catholic Summer School Press, 1911. Postpaid $3.50.

IN PREPARATION

MAKERS OF ASTRONOMY

THE DOLPHIN PRESS SERIES

CATHOLIC CHURCHMEN IN SCIENCE
First and second series, each $1.00 net.

PSYCHOTHERAPY
Lectures on The Influence of the Mind on the Body delivered at Fordham University School of Medicine. Appletons, New York, 1912, $6.00
net.

SEBASTIANO DEL PIOMBO, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS

(METROPOLITAN MUSEUM. NEW YORK)

The Century of Columbus

BY

JAMES J. WALSH, K.C.St.G., M.D., Ph.D., LL.D.

LITT.D. (Georgetown), Sc.D. (Notre Dame)

PROFESSOR OP PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY AT THE CATHEDRAL

COLLEGE; LIFE MEMBER OF THE NEW YORK HISTORICAL

SOCIETY, MEMBER OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF MEDICINE.

OF THE GERMAN AND FRENCH SOCIETIES OF THE HISTORY

OF MEDICINE. OF THE ITALIAN SOCIETY FOR THE

HISTORY OF THE NATURAL AND THE MEDICAL
SCIENCES, OF THE ST. LOUIS MEDICAL HISTORY

CLUB, THE NEW ORLEANS PARISH MEDICAL

SOCIETY, A.M.A., A.A.A.S., ETC.

WITH EIGHTY-SIX ILLUSTRATIONS

CATHOLIC SUMMER SCHOOL PRESS

New York, 1914

Copyright, 1914
James J. Walsh

THE QUINN & BODEN CO. PRESS

RAMWAY, N. J.

To The Knights of Columbus

for whom the material here presented in book form was originally gathered for lectures in many parts of the country and whose hearty interest in
the dissemination of historical truth has encouraged its completion, this book is fraternally and respectfully dedicated by the author.

"There come from time to time, eras of more favorable conditions, in which the thoughts of men draw nearer together than is their wont, and the
many interests of the intellectual world combine in one complete type of general culture. The fifteenth century ... is one of these happier eras; and
what is sometimes said of the age of Pericles is true of that of Lorenzo--it is an age productive of personalities, many-sided, centralized, complete.
Here, artists and philosophers and those whom the action of the world has elevated and made keen, do not live in isolation, but breathe a common
air, and catch light and heat from each other's thoughts. There is a spirit of general elevation and enlightenment in which all alike communicate. ...
That solemn fifteenth century can hardly be studied too much, not merely for its positive results in the things of the intellect and the imagination, its
concrete works of art, its special and prominent personalities, with their profound aesthetic charm, but for its general spirit and character, for the
ethical qualities of which it is a consummate type."

Walter Pater, The Renaissance.

{vii}

PREFACE

In a previous book, "The Thirteenth Greatest of Centuries," I described the period of human activity in which, as it appears to me, more was
accomplished that is of significance in the expression of what is best in man and for the development of humanity than during any corresponding
period of the world's history. To many people it may now seem that I am setting up a rival to the Thirteenth Century in what is here called The
Century of Columbus, the period from 1450 to 1550. I may as a foreword say, then, that there is no thought of that and that I still feel quite sure
that the Thirteenth is the Greatest of Centuries, though it must be admitted that probably more supremely great men were at work in Columbus'
Century than in the preceding period. The Thirteenth Century is greatest, however, because its achievements were more widely diffused in their
influence and because more of mankind had the opportunity and the incentive to bring out the highest that was in them, than at any other period in

the world's history. As a consequence a greater proportion of mankind was happy than ever before or since, for happiness comes only with the
consciousness of good work done and the satisfaction of personal achievement. And that is the greatest period of human history when man is the
happiest.

The Renaissance, however, for it is practically the period in history usually known by that name which is here called the Century of Columbus,
achieved results in every mode of human endeavor that have been inspiring models for all succeeding generations, most of all our own. Just why
greatness in human achievement should thus occur in periods long separated from each other is hard to understand. I have sometimes suggested
that there is probably a biological law in the matter, the factors of which are not well understood as yet. Every third or fourth year the farmer
expects to have an apple or fruit year, as it is called--that is, to reap a fine fruit harvest, the {viii} fruit product of the intervening years having often
been quite indifferent. Man is much more complex than the fruits and so it takes a longer interval to prepare a great human harvest, hence humanity
has its supreme fruitage only every third or fourth century. Undoubtedly Columbus' Century is one of the finest fruit periods of human history.

There was nothing that the men of the time did not do supremely well, and a great many of them did nearly everything that they took in hand better
than any of their successors. As a curious contrast to our time, very few of them limited themselves to any one mode of expression. Because of its
very contradiction of a great many of our prevalent impressions, as for instance the universal persuasion of constant human evolution and the
supposed progress of mankind from year to year but surely from century to century, and the thought so common, that after all we must now be far
ahead of the past,--though there is abundant evidence of the vanity of this self-complacency--the story of Columbus' Century should be interesting
to our generation. Since it furnishes the background of history on which alone the real significance of the discovery of our continent just after the
end of the Middle Ages can be properly seen, it should have a special appeal to Americans. These are the reasons for writing the book.

Owing to the large field that is covered, the author can scarcely hope to have escaped errors of detail. His only thought is that the broad view of
the whole range of achievement may be sufficiently helpful to those interested in the history of human culture to compensate for faults that were
almost inevitable. Its comprehensiveness may give the book a suggestive and retrospective value. It is addressed not to the special student but to
the general reader interested in all phases of human accomplishment who wishes to fill in the outlines of political history with the story of the
intellectual and ethical life of a great epoch. Thanks are due to Mr. Stephen Horgan for material aid in the selection of illustrations, no easy task
because of the immense material to choose from. A definite effort has been made to avoid the well-known masterpieces and have the illustrations
add to the knowledge of the time.

{ix}

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION xxv

The discovery of America but one of a series of notable achievements in Columbus' time.

His century, 1450 to 1550, had more great men than any other in human history.

In the arts it is unsurpassed.

In its deeds it rivals every other century, above all in social work, in scholarship, in education and in its achievements in the sciences, physical as
well as biological, and in medicine and surgery.

Its literature is behind that of certain other periods of history, but this is the age of Leo X and one of the most interesting epochs of world literature
in every European country.

BOOK I. THE BOOK OF THE ARTS

CHAPTER I

GREAT PAINTERS; RAPHAEL

1

Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo the world's greatest painters.
Raphael, greatest of religious painters.
Born at Urbino.
Duke Frederick patron of art.
Studies with Timotheo Viti and Perugino.
Influence of Fra Bartolommeo.
Work at Rome.
Stanze of the Vatican.

Camera della Segnatura.
Cartoons for Sistine tapestries.
Sistine Madonna.
Raphael, art director and archaeologist.

CHAPTER II

LEONARDO DA VINCI

15

"Mona Lisa."
Walter Pater's tribute.
The "Last Supper" disclosed genius and methods of artist.
The "Madonna of the Rocks."
Sculptor, engineer, geologist, anatomist, zoologist, botanist and biologist.
Dissections and proposed text-book of anatomy.
Career as artist.
Surpasses his master Verrocchio.
Scientific interests.
Inventor.
Personality, philosophy of life.
Burckhardt's summary--"colossal genius"

{x}

CHAPTER III

MICHELANGELO

32

Humble origin of world's greatest genius.
Little interest in books.
Studio of Ghirlandajo.
Academy of Lorenzo de' Medici.
Dissections.
Early works.
Pietà, reason for youthfulness of mother.
David.
Tomb of Pope Julius.
Galley Slaves.
Decoration of the Sistine Chapel.
Moses.
Sacristy of San Lorenzo.
"Four-souled" Michelangelo's sonnets.
Practical genius. Family cares.
Advice on marriage.
Friendship with Vittoria Colonna.
Attitude toward religion.
Influence waxes with time

CHAPTER IV

SECONDARY ITALIAN PAINTERS OF THE CENTURY: FRA ANGELICO, PERUGINO, FRA BARTOLOMMEO, BOTTICELLI,

BELLINI, TITIAN, CORREGGIO, TINTORETTO, VERONESE AND OTHERS

53

A century rich in painters.
Fra Angelico the mystic.
Perugino the teacher of Raphael;

at the Sistine Chapel;
pictures mistaken for Raphael's.

Fra Bartolommeo's greatest works.
Botticelli's mythology and psychology;

Madonnas;

illustrations of Dante.

Bellini's portraits;

Madonnas.

Titian's wonderful color;

religious pictures;
portraits;
mythological scenes.

Piero dei Franceschi.
Luca Signorelli.
Melozzo da Forli.
Correggio a middle-term between the various Italian schools;
"Most skilful artist since the ancient Greeks."
Tintoretto master of drawing and world artist.
"The composition of Michelangelo and the coloring of Titian."
Veronese's magnificent large pictures.

CHAPTER V

PAINTING OUTSIDE OF ITALY

71

The Netherlands:

The brothers Van Eyck forerunners;
Roger van der Weyden;
Memling's paintings at the Hospital of St. John, Bruges;
Dirk Bouts;
Quentin Matsys;
Lucas van Leyden;
Gerard David;
Justus of Ghent;
Jan van Mabuse;
Bernard van Orley;
Blondeel.

Nuremberg rival of Bruges;

Dürer;
the Holbeins.

France:

The Clouets;
Cousin;
Fouquet

Spain:

Navarrete;
Juan de Borgona;
Luis de Vargas;
Pablo de Cespedes.

Women painters in Spain

CHAPTER VI

SCULPTURE IN ITALY

85

Ghiberti's doors for the Baptistery at Florence.
Donatello.

The great equestrian statues of Gatamelata and Colleoni.
Donatello's St. George,
St. Francis,
Bambino Gesu,
St. John the Baptist

Donatello's personality.
His paralysis.

{xi}
Luca della Robbia, sculptor, worker in terra-cotta.
Andrea del Verrocchio, goldsmith, painter, sculptor:

"The Incredulity of St. Thomas,"
"The Colleoni."

Benvenuto Cellini, sculptor, goldsmith, writer.
John of Bologna:

Neptune,
Mercury.

The sculpture in the Certosa at Pavia.
Decadence in sculpture

CHAPTER VII

SCULPTURE AND MINOR ARTS AND CRAFTS OUTSIDE OF ITALY

97

Names of sculptors of Low Countries often unknown.
Tombs of Mary of Burgundy and Charles the Bold.
Wood-carving,

Bruges,
Leyden,
Haarlem.

Germany:

Nuremberg,
Veit Stoss,
Dürer,
Adam Kraft,
the Vischers.
St. Sebald's shrine;
Maximilian's Tomb at Innsbrück.

France:

Colombe.
Tours a great centre of art:

Jean Fouchet and the Tomb of Agnes Sorel:
Jean Goujon and Germain Pilon.

Flemish and French tapestry.

Golden Age of tapestry.
Recent appreciation.
Beautiful altar vessels, enamels, furniture,
locks and keys, jewel boxes, armor, clocks

CHAPTER VIII

THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE CENTURY

114

Brunelleschi's dome.
Alberti's "De re aedificatoria":

Church of San Francesco.

Florence, Rucellai, Ricardi and Pitti Palace.
Venice;

Library of St Mark;
Palace of the Doge and of the Grimani.

Palladio at Vicenza.
Genoa, the city of palaces.
Vignola,

Villa of Pope Julius,
Palace of Caprarola.

Façade of the Certosa.
Sistine Chapel and King's College, Cambridge.
Louvain, Hotel de Ville.
Brussels the grande place.
Spain:

University of Alcalá.
Cloister of Lupiana.
Alcazar, Toledo.

Giralda tower.
France:

Louvre,
Pavillon de l'Horloge;
the Chateaux.

Architecture of the Renaissance a living force

CHAPTER IX

MUSIC

134

Renaissance music as original as art and literature.
Beginning in Netherlands, Ockenheim, Josquin, Arcadelt.
Degrees in music, England.
German music, Hans Sachs.
Roman music,

Claude Goudimel,
the brothers Animuccia,
the brothers Nanini,
Orlando di Lasso.

Church reform of music.
Palestrina,

career,
achievement,
recent restoration as Catholic standard.

Oratorio.
Dominant seventh.
Development of musical instruments--organ, violin

CHAPTER X

BOOKS AND PRINTS: WOOD AND METAL ENGRAVING

146

Renaissance appreciation of beautiful books.
Artistic manuscripts.
Invention of printing.
Most beautiful printed books in the world
{xii}
Our imitation.
Books of Hours.
Illustrations.
Type-cutting.
William Caxton:

his place in English prose.

Aldus Manutius:

Editiones principes of all the classics;
career;

business troubles;
achievements.

Geoffrey Tory.
Simon de Collines.
Champ Fleury.
Tory, King's printer.
The dream of Poliphilo.
Fra Giocondo's illustrations.
Dürer and German wood-engraving.
Burgkmaier.
Holbein.
French wood-engraving.
German metal-engraving.
Italian illustrations.
Vesalius' anatomy.
Artistic bookbinding.
Grolier.
Decadence in bookmaking arts

BOOK II. THE BOOK OF THE DEEDS

CHAPTER I

SOCIAL WORK AND WORKERS

169

Criterion of period;

solution of social problems.

The climax of guild social influence.
Insurance features.
No poorhouses, no orphan asylums.
Care of ne'er-do-well.
Guild of Holy Cross, Stratford;

almshouses;
grammar school.

Thirty thousand guilds in England.
Philanthropy.
Sir Hugh Clopton's guild chapel and bridge.
"Tag day."
Beguines' care for dependents:

their place in history.

Lending institutions for the poor.
St. Catherine of Genoa.
Organization of charity.
St. Philip Neri;

modern appreciation.

St. Ignatius.
Savonarola.
Political complications.
Savonarola's fate.
Las Casas' care for the Indians.
St. Francis Borgia.
Torture later in history.
Witchcraft delusion post-reformation.
Decadence of charity

CHAPTER II

HOSPITALS, NURSING AND CARE FOR THE INSANE

192

The humanity that cares for the ailing.
Neglect in more recent times;

jail-like hospitals without trained attendants.

Beautiful Renaissance hospitals.
Florence's Home of the Innocents.
Ospedale Maggiore, Milan.
Santo Spirito Hospital, Rome.
Hospitals of the Beguines, Netherlands.
St. John's Hospital, Bruges.
Ample water supplies.
Religious uniform and cleanliness.
Sir Thomas More on hospitals.
Brothers of Mercy in Spain.
The Do-good Little Brothers.
Care of the insane.
Spain the leader.
The "open door."
Subsequent abuses.
Italian asylums.
Subsequent decadence

CHAPTER III

ST. IGNATIUS LOYOLA AND THE JESUITS

206

A great genius in organization.
Career.
Political and religious situation in Europe.
A new knighthood.
{xiii}
The "Little Company of Jesus."
The Spiritual Exercises.
Jesuit Missions:

India,
Japan,
China,
South America,
Reductions of Paraguay,
North America.

Jesuit Relations, gathering and transmitting knowledge.
Education of the Jesuits;

great pupils;
bibliography.

Activity in the sciences.
Jesuit astronomers.
In other fields.
All things to all men.
Ignatius' legacy of persecution and contumely

CHAPTER IV

SIR THOMAS MORE AND SOME CONTEMPORARIES

223

An artist in human will.
England at More's birth.
Youth.
Marriage.
Opposes the King.
Studies, Louvain, Paris.
Busy barrister, care for the poor.
Friendship with Erasmus.
Family life.
Margaret More.
Linacre.
Dean Colet.
Lyly.
John Caius.
More's English writings.
Utopia.
Controversial writings.
Lord Chancellor,--clears the docket.
Honors and wealth or duty and death.
More's choice.
Trying situation.
Humor on the scaffold.
Lord Campbell on his execution;

on the Lord Chancellors who succeeded him

CHAPTER V

THE REFORMERS

243

Reformation or religious revolt.
Change in education and its effect on men's minds.
Janssen on intellectual movement of the Renaissance.
Reformers, Luther, Calvin, Henry VIII.
False impressions as to reformation, Hallam.
Political corruption.
Luther, Denifle, Grisar.
Luther on indulgences.
Luther and Zwingli.
Judgments of God.
Luther and Melanchthon condone bigamy.
McGiffert's comment.
Luther's discouragement.
Calvin the austere.
Life without relaxation.
Calvin's discouragement.
Execution of Servetus.
Henry VIII's conscience.
How the English people were robbed of their religion.
Cobbett, Macaulay, Frederic Harrison and Professor Powell on the English and Scottish reformers.
Professor Briggs on Saints of the Reformation.
The counter-reformation.
Effects of the reformation

CHAPTER VI

GREAT EXPLORERS AND EMPIRE BUILDERS

262

Prince Henry the navigator.
John II of Portugal.
Bartholomew Dias.
Vasco da Gama.
Columbus.
Amerigo Vespucci.
The Cabots.
Magellan.
Circumnavigation of the globe.
South Sea discoveries.
Australia.
Verazzano in New York.
French explorers.
Empire builders old and new.
Cortés.
Pizarro.
Spanish treatment of Indians.
Contrast with ours.
Explorers of Columbus Century and of present day

{xiv}

CHAPTER VII

AMERICA IN COLUMBUS' CENTURY

275

A glorious chapter of American history before 1550.
Sidney Lee contrasts Spanish and English influence in America.
Professor Bourne on early American culture.
Mexican education.
Universities of Mexico and Lima.
Scholarship.
Educational standards.
Dr. Chanca on America.
Garcilaso de la Vega.
Professor Bourne contrasts Spanish and English education.
Printing press.
Early printed books.
First American hospital.
Champlain on Mexico.
Remains at Panama.

CHAPTER VIII

SOME GREAT WOMEN

290

Renaissance women.
Isabella of Castile.
Genius for peace and war.
Power of administration.
Education.
Housewifely virtues.
Care for Indians.

Prescott's contrast of Isabella and Elizabeth.
Vittoria Colonna.
Letter to her husband on honesty.
Poems.
Influence on men of Renaissance.
The Gonzagas.
St. Catherine of Genoa.
Battistina Vernazza.
Lucretia Borgia.
Historical traditions and facts.
Gregorovius' vindication.
Garnett on Borgia poisonings.
Aldus' praise.
Lucretia as a ruler.
Her protection of the Jews.
Her husband's love.
Victor Hugo and the Lucretian myth.
Marguerite of Navarre.
Personal character.
Care for the poor.
Mary of Burgundy.
St. Teresa.
Mater Spiritualium.
French, German and English tributes.
Greatest of intellectual women.
Some of her maxims.

CHAPTER IX

FEMININE EDUCATION

313

Phases of feminine education before our time.
Italian universities.
Benedictine convents.
Charlemagne's time.
St. Brigid of Ireland.
Vittorino da Feltre and his pupils.
Guarino.
Physical training.
Lucretia, the mother of Lorenzo the Magnificent.
Isabella and Beatrice D'Este.
Abundant opportunities of feminine education.
Influence on their homes.
Renaissance gardens.
Camerini of Isabella D'Este.
Lucretia Borgia's apartments.
Feminine devotion to social problems.
Comparison with our own time.
Public appearances.
Olympia Morata.
Angela Merici, founder in education.
The Ursulines and the Jesuits.
Their continued activity all over the world.
Anne of Bretagne.
Marguerite of Navarre.
Sex.
Feminine education in Spain.
Prescott's tribute.
Feminine education in England:

Margaret of Anjou,
Margaret Beaufort,

the Countess of Arundel,
Lady Jane Grey,
Mary Queen of Scots,
Queen Elizabeth,
Margaret More.
Charitas Pirkheimer.

Feminine education and religion.
"Beauty, disposition, education, virtue, piety combined to make them harmonious human beings" (Burckhardt)

{xv}

CHAPTER X

PHYSICAL SCIENCE OF THE CENTURY

343

Science developed as wonderfully as art and literature.
Translations of the classics of science.
Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa.
Puerbach.
Regiomontanus.
Cardinal Bessarion.
Scientific scholars in Italy from all over the world.
Linacre, Vesalius, Caius.
Toscanelli and Columbus.
Copernicus and a new universe.
His attitude toward the reformation.
Leonardo da Vinci, scientist and inventor.
The scientific spirit.
Telesio and the inductive method.
Chemistry in medicine.
Basil Valentine and Paracelsus.
Columbus and the declination of the magnetic needle

CHAPTER XI

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

360

Nature study in the Middle Ages.
Anatomists of the Renaissance.
Acute Italian observation.
Leonardo da Vinci.
Supposed Church opposition to dissection.
All the artists dissectors.
Vesalius, father of modern anatomy.
Columbus, Fallopius, Eustachius, Aranzi, Servetus.
Caesalpinus.
Circulation of the blood.
Harvey's indebtedness to the Italian anatomists.
Botany.
Leonardo da Vinci, Brunfels, Fuchs, Tragus, Euricius and Valerius Cordus. Tributes to Valerius Cordus.
Caesalpinus as a botanist.
Ruellius and Pierre Belon in France.
Spanish and Portuguese studies of American and Indian plants

CHAPTER XII

MEDICINE

381

Standards of education.
Clinical teaching.
Rabelais' principles.
Early printed medical books.
Leonicenus.
Linacre.
Caius.
Montanus.
Paracelsus,

chemistry and medicine,
physical factors,
in therapy,
occupation diseases.

Rejection of pretensions to knowledge.
Paracelsus' contributions to surgery.
Animal magnetism.
Absurdities.
Basil Valentine.
Theories of auto-toxaemia.
Cornelius Agrippa.
Influence of mind on body.
Pathological anatomy.
Benivieni.
Joost van Lom.
Schenck von Graffenberg.
Petrus Forestus.
Fracastorius.
Paré on gout.
Drugs from the new world.
Botanical gardens.
Theory and observation.
Mental diseases, differentiation.
Balneotherapy.
Jerome Cardan, absurdities.
Cornaro's longevity.
Sanitary regulations.
Pure food laws.
Popular hygiene.
Alcoholic beverages.
Health boards in Italy.
Tuberculosis contagion.
Sir Thomas More on the place of the physician

{xvi}

CHAPTER XIII

SURGERY

409

Printing of old surgical text-books.
Magnificent hospitals.
Study of gunshot wounds.
Ambroise Paré.
Experiments with bullets.
Surgical specialties.
Orthopedics.
Bone surgery.