The catalysts and constraints of castle-building in Suffolk c. 1066-1200

357 Pages·2014·10.57 MB·English

The catalysts and constraints of castle-building in Suffolk
c. 1066-1200
Duncan McAndrew
Volume I
Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD
2008
Institute of Archaeology
University College London
University of London
This dissertation is unrevised examination copy for consultation only and it should not
be quoted or cited without permission of the director of the Institute.
UMI Number: U591529
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Abstract
Twenty-seven Suffolk castles were built between 1066 and 1200. This thesis
summarises the modem multi-disciplinary surveys of six of them, with the objective of
identifying their location, morphology, form and function. The majority of Suffolk
castles were built between the late 11^ and mid- 12^-century and reached their largest
number during the civil wars c.l 135-54. However, a few remained operational after
C.1200 and those that did are characterised as either royal or baronial caput castles.
Moreover, almost all Suffolk castles were originally earth and timber, whereas the
surviving examples were rebuilt in stone before c.l300. Therefore, those castles that
survived beyond or were established after c.1200 are unrepresentative. Instead this
thesis focuses on the period 1066 to 1200, when the more common sub-baronial, earth
and timber Suffolk castles were evidenced.
Chapter one identifies the key issues. Chapter two critiques each of the current models
in castle studies before rejecting them in favour of a modified Annales model. Chapter
three identifies the constraints of the longue durée, identified as the environmental
factors, defined as the climate, topography, geology, hydrology and timber supply in the
vicinity of the castle. Chapter four identifies societal constraints, which are sub-divided
into structural, social and cultural, and focuses on the Abbey of St Edmund’s, its cult,
viceroyship, ecclesiastical autonomy and barony, its relationship with the new elite and
how it influenced castle building.
Chapter five focuses on three of the six surveyed castle earthworks to establish the
événement level of the model, which identifies the castle building agents and the
specific historical and political context in which these castles were built. Chapter six
brings the different sources and levels of data together to offer a new model, a more
nuanced definition of a castle and a comprehensive assessment of the conflicting
demands of the catalysts and constraints operating upon the construction of castles in
Suffolk. In this it is supported by over two hundred figures and plans, numerous tables,
a comprehensive set of appendices and an extensive bibliography.
Table of contents
Volume I
Table of contents............................................................................................................................3
Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................30
Notes on abbreviations and references cited in the text............................................................32
Abbreviations...........................................................................................................................32
Note on Little Domesday Book references............................................................................32
Note on Tables.........................................................................................................................32
Chapter 1.0: Introduction.............................................................................................................33
Chapter 2.0: Castle Studies...........................................................................................................39
2.1: Introduction...........................................................................................................................39
2.2: Defining castles....................................................................................................................40
2.3: The research context............................................................................................................43
2.4: The current principal models for English castles...............................................................43
2.4.1 : The social control model.............................................................................................44
2.4.2: The processual social evolutionary model..................................................................44
2.4.3: The symbolic-structuralist model................................................................................44
2.4.4: The post-modernist/post-processual model................................................................44
2.4.5: The geological model...................................................................................................45
2.5: Why these current theoretical explanations are inadequate..............................................45
2.5.1 : A critique of the social control model.........................................................................45
2.5.1 a: The location of castles in relation to the Anglo-Saxon population..................45
2.5.1.b: Chronological distribution of castles....................................................................46
2.5.2: A critique of the processual social evolutionary model..............................................46
2.5.3: A critique of the symbolic structuralist model...........................................................48
2.5.3.a: The assumption that, if not immediately post-Conquest in date, castles are
‘anarchy castles’ (c.l 135 to 1153) and are therefore little more than fieldworks...........48
2.5.3.b: The ‘revisionist’ models of warfare in East Anglia c.l 135-53 ........................49
2.5.3.C: Recent innovations in the study of medieval military history............................52
2.5.3.c.i: Participation in medieval warfare..................................................................52
2.5.3.C.Ü: The conduct of medieval warfare.................................................................53
2.5.3.c.iii: The motives for medieval warfare...............................................................54
2.5.3 .c.iv: The technology of medieval siege warfare in the 11* to 13* centuries... 55
2.5.3.C.V: The Church’s attitude to medieval warfare..................................................56
2.5.3.d: Population, social demographics and castles......................................................56
2.5.3.d.i: The total population of a Domesday vill evidencing a castle......................57
2.5.3.d.ii: Rural’ and ‘urban’ castles...........................................................................57
2.5.3.d.iii: Social demography of‘rural’ Domesday vill.............................................59
2.5.3.d.iv: Problems with the model.............................................................................59
2.5.3.d.iv.l: The model is not predictive..................................................................60
2.5.3.d.iv.2: The number of individual freemen and sokemen in a Domesday
‘rural’ vill...................................................................................................................61
2.5.3.d.iv.3: The absolute ‘rural’ Domesday population density of the vill and their
hundred.......................................................................................................................61
2.5.3.d.iv.4: The free ‘rural’ Domesday population in the vill and their hundreds62
2.5.3.d.v: The‘aesthetic’ landscape approach..............................................................63
2.5.3.d.v. 1 : Pre-Conquest deer parks in Suffolk......................................................63
2.5.3.d.v.2: Post-Conquest deer parks in Suffolk....................................................64
2.5.3.d.v.3: A data-set of Suffolk deer parks 1066 to 1200....................................66
2.5.3.d.v.4: Summary.................................................................................................67
2.5.3.d.vi: Suffolk castles, baronial caputs and the ‘landscape of Lordship’.............68
2.5.3.e: The post-processual/post-modem model.............................................................69
2.5.4: A critique of the geological model..............................................................................72
2.6: Research question................................................................................................................73
2.7: Case selection: Why Suffolk?..............................................................................................73
2.8: The data-set...........................................................................................................................74
2.9: Towards a new theoretical model for the study of castles.................................................74
2.10: The criteria for a theoretical model for the study of medieval English castles..............75
2.10.1: Generality....................................................................................................................75
2.10.2: Appropriateness..........................................................................................................75
2.10.3: Multi-disciplinarity.....................................................................................................75
2.10.4: Verifiability................................................................................................................76
2.10.5: Chronology.................................................................................................................76
2.10.6: Agency.........................................................................................................................77
2.11: An Annales-msipxTtà theoretical framework for the study of castles..............................78
2.11.1: Environmental and strategic considerations.............................................................79
2.11.2: Structural, societal and cultural considerations........................................................79
2.11.3: Agency and functional considerations.......................................................................79
2.12: Methodology.......................................................................................................................81
2.12.1: Short-term événement and agency evidence............................................................81
2.12.2: Medium-term societal: social, technological, cultural and mentalities evidence... 81
2.12.3: Long-term environmental or longue durée evidence................................................82
2.13: Original contributions of research project........................................................................83
2.13:1 In approach..................................................................................................................83
2.13.2: In survey......................................................................................................................83
2.13.3: Archaeological knowledge.........................................................................................83
Chapter 3.0: Suffolk castles and the longue durée^..................................................................84
3.1: Introduction...........................................................................................................................84
3.2: The topography of Suffolk...................................................................................................86
3.3: The relative height above CD of Suffolk castle sites.........................................................87
3.4: Current knowledge of the geology of castles......................................................................88
3.5: The geology of Suffolk........................................................................................................89
3.6: Solid geology of Suffolk......................................................................................................89
3.6.1: Chalk.............................................................................................................................90
3.6.2: Lower London tertiary group......................................................................................91
3.6.3: London clay..................................................................................................................91
3.6.3.a: Septarium...............................................................................................................91
3.6.4: Crag...............................................................................................................................93
3.6.4.a: Sub-divisions of crag............................................................................................94
3.6.4.a.i: Norwich crag...................................................................................................94
3.6.4.a.ii: Red crag.........................................................................................................94
3.6.4.a.iii: Coralline crag...............................................................................................95
3.6.5: Kesgrave and Ingham sands and gravels.....................................................................95
3.6.5.a: Kesgrave sand and gravels...................................................................................95
3.6.5.b: Ingham sand and gravels......................................................................................96
3.7: Conclusions drawn from the distribution of Suffolk castles across the solid geology of
the county.....................................................................................................................................96
3.8: Glaciations............................................................................................................................97
3.9: Drift geology of Suffolk......................................................................................................98
3.9.1: Lowestoft till................................................................................................................99
3.9.1.a: Gaults...................................................................................................................101
3.9.2: Breckland.sands...........................................................................................................101
3.9.3 Coastal sands..............................................................................................................102
3.9.4: Marine and estuarial peats..........................................................................................103
3.9.5: Alluvium......................................................................................................................103
3.10: Conclusion from the distribution of castles across the drift geology of Suffolk..........104
3.11: Conclusion from the topography, solid and drift geologies of castle sites in Suffolk. 105
3.12: Earthwork technology.......................................................................................................106
3.12.1: Allowable bearing pressures.....................................................................................106
3.12.2: The angle of rest of different soils...........................................................................108
3.12.2.a: Sands and gravels..............................................................................................109
3.12.2.b: Chalk..................................................................................................................109
3.12.2.C: Loess...................................................................................................................109
3.12.2.d: Peat.....................................................................................................................110
3.12.2.e: Clays..................................................................................................................110
3.13: Earthwork technology conclusion..................................................................................110
3.14: Geology and the morphology of Suffolk castles 1066 to 1200.................................... 111
3.15: Climate and Precipitation in Suffolk..............................................................................113
3.16: The hydrology of Suffolk................................................................................................113
3.17: The North Sea and Fenland maritime environments......................................................114
3.18: The water catchments of Suffolk.....................................................................................115
3.19: Aquifers............................................................................................................................116
3.20: The piezometric surface..................................................................................................116
3.21 : Perched piezometric surface.........................................................................................117
3.22: Current state of knowledge of water-supply to medieval castles.................................117
3.23: Hydrological technology in the and 11 and 12* centuries.........................................119
3.23.1: Wells..........................................................................................................................119
3.23.2: Mechanical hand pumps...........................................................................................121
3.23.3: Cisterns......................................................................................................................121
3.23.4: Wet-moats, ponds and natural lakes........................................................................122
3.23.5: Springs, meres and watercourses..............................................................................123
3.24: Riverine-transportation....................................................................................................124
3.25: Hydrological and water-supply conclusions...................................................................125
3.26: Timber resources in Suffolk.............................................................................................126
3.26.1 : Establishing the Domesday timber resources in the vicinity of the data-set of
castles.....................................................................................................................................127
3.26.2: Pigs in space: an alternative interpretation of the measurements of Domesday
woodland in the east of England...........................................................................................128
3.26.3: Testing the Domesday data as a quantitative measurement of woodland 130
3.27: Carpentry technology between 1066 and 1200........................................................ 133
3.27.1: The simple scarf joint...............................................................................................133
3.27.2: The archaeological evidence of contemporary carpentry technology from castles
................................................................................................................................................134
3.27.3: Timber and carpentry conclusion.............................................................................137
3.28: The ‘pays’ of Suffolk and problems with their definitions............................................137
3.28.1: Pays summary...........................................................................................................140
3.28.2: Pays Conclusion.......................................................................................................141
Chapter 4.0: Sœlig Sudfolc..........................................................................................................142
4.1: Introduction.........................................................................................................................142
4.2: Saint Edmund......................................................................................................................144
4.3: The date of St Edmund’s martyrdom.................................................................................146
4.4: The site of Edmund’s martyrdom......................................................................................146
4.5: The uncorrupted body of St Edmund.................................................................................146
4.6: Appropriated topoi in St Edmund’s hagiography.............................................................148
4.7: The St Edmund coin series c. 890-920.............................................................................149
4.8: St Edmund’s relocation to Bedericsworth c.917-942.......................................................149
4.9: Bedericsworth c.942 to 1066.............................................................................................150
4.10: The creation of a necropolis at Bury St Edmunds c.l 031-96 ....................................... 151
4.11: The wealth of the pre-Conquest Abbey of St Edmund..................................................151
4.12: The pre-Conquest royal patronage of the shrine of St Edmund.....................................152
4.12.1: Cnut (d. c.1035)....................................................................................................... 152
4.12.2: Edward the Confessor (d. 1066)............................................................................. 152
4.13: The post-Conquest Abbey of St Edmund.......................................................................153
4.14: The Abbot of St Edmund’s Abbey as royal viceroy in west Suffolk............................154
4.14.1: Judicial function........................................................................................................154
4.14.2: Fiscal function...........................................................................................................154
4.14.3: Administrative function............................................................................................154
4.15: Papal patronage.................................................................................................................155
4.19: St Edmund’s Abbey’s post-Conquest relationship with the Crown...............................156
4.19.1: William I (c.l066-1087).......................................................................................... 156
4.19.2: William Rufus (1087- 1100)................................................................................... 157
4.19.3: Henry I (1100 to 1135).............................................................................................157
4.19.4: Stephen (1135 to 1154)............................................................................................157
4.19.5: Henry II (1154 to 1189)............................................................................................158
4.19.6: Richard I (1189 to 1199)..........................................................................................159
4.20: The Liberty of St Edmund post-Conquest......................................................................159
4.21: Bury St Edmunds..............................................................................................................160
4.22: The agency of Abbot Baldwin.........................................................................................161
4.24: Post-Conquest miracles attributed to St Edmund.........................................................162
4.25: Establishing St Edmund’s reputation for violence........................................................163
4.26: Establishing the authority of St Edmund’s Abbey in the 11*** and 12* centuries and how
that affected castle building in Suffolk.....................................................................................166
4.27: Sources of the Abbot’s authority.....................................................................................166
4.28: Points of conflict: jurisdiction, rights and privileges.....................................................167
4.29: Benedictine rivalry with other orders in Suffolk..........................................................167
4.30: The Knights of St Edmund..............................................................................................169
4.31 : Sources of evidence for the Knights of St Edmund........................................................171
4.32: The membership of the Knights of St Edmund between 1086 and 1098..................... 172
4.32.1: Frodo, Abbot Baldwin’s brother...............................................................................172
4.32.2: The Sheriffs...............................................................................................................173
4.32.3: The Bretons and officials..........................................................................................173
4.32.5: The clergymen...........................................................................................................174
4.32.6: Those that held very small fees from St Edmund’s Abbey....................................174
4.33: A comparison of membership over the period 1086-1098 ........................................... 175
4.34: An examination of the knights’ fees in terms of: acreage, population and value between
1086 and 1098............................................................................................................................176
4.34.1: The acreage of fees 1086 and 1098........................................................................ 176
4.34.2: The population of fees c.l 098................................................................................ 177
4.34.3: The value of fees in 1086.........................................................................................178
4.35: An examination of changes in membership between 1086, 1166 and 1200................ 178
4.36: Post-civil war changes to the membership......................................................................181
4.37: The Knights of St Edmund and their castles in Suffolk c.l 066-1200.......................... 183
4.38: St Edmund’s Abbey and castle building.........................................................................184
4.38.1: Baronial castles.........................................................................................................184
4.38.2: Sub-baronial castles..................................................................................................184
4.38.3: The distribution of castles within the Liberty of St Edmund..................................185
4.38.4: Castle building in the Liberty after 1200................................................................ 186
4.39: Conclusions.......................................................................................................................187
4.39.1: Cultural evidence......................................................................................................187
4.39.2: Structural evidence...................................................................................................188
4.39.3: Social evidence..........................................................................................................188
Chapter 5.0: The sample of surveyed Suffolk castle earthworks..........................................192
5.1: Introduction.........................................................................................................................192
5.2: Foxhills Earthwork, Burgate Wood, Burgate....................................................................193
5.2.1: Location and topography............................................................................................193
5.2.3: Environmental resources............................................................................................195
5.2.3.a: Geological resources...........................................................................................195
5.2.3.a.i: Solid geology................................................................................................195
5.2.3.a.ii: Drift geology................................................................................................196
5.2.3.b: Hydrological resources........................................................................................197
5.2.3.b.i: Watercourses.................................................................................................198
5.2.3.b.ii: Wells.............................................................................................................198
5.2.3.b.iii: Ponds...........................................................................................................199
5.2.3.b.iv: Springs.........................................................................................................199
5.2.3.C: Historical timber resources.................................................................................200
5.2.4; Anglo-Saxon Burgate.................................................................................................202
5.2.5: Anglo-Norman Burgate..............................................................................................204
5.2.6: Anglo-Norman lordship, dynasty and agent..............................................................206
5.2.7: Description of earthwork...........................................................................................207
5.2.7.a:. A linear earthwork east of the ring-work and leading to its entrance.............207
5.2.7.b: The elliptical ring-work......................................................................................208
5.2.7.C: Wet moat.............................................................................................................209
5.2.7.d: A separate sub-rectangular building platform abutting the ring-work at its
western entrance...............................................................................................................210
5.3: Pitches, Pythches or Prytche’s Mount earthwork, Groton Park, Groton (TL962425)
212
5.3.1: Location and topography...........................................................................................212
5.3.2: Environmental resources...........................................................................................214
5.3.2.a: Geological resources...........................................................................................214
5.3.2.a.i: Solid geology................................................................................................214
5.3.2.a.ii: Drift geology................................................................................................214
5.3.2.b: Hydrological resources.......................................................................................216
5.3.2.b.i: Watercourses.................................................................................................217
5.3.2.b.ii: Wells............................................................................................................217
5.3.2.b.iii: Ponds..........................................................................................................218
5.3.2.b.iv: Springs........................................................................................................219
5.3.2.C: Historic timber resources....................................................................................220
5.3.3: Anglo-Saxon Groton..................................................................................................222
5.3.4: Anglo-Norman Groton...............................................................................................223
5.3.5: Anglo-Norman lordship, dynasty and agent.............................................................225
5.3.6: Description of earthwork...........................................................................................226
5.3.6.a: The motte.............................................................................................................226
5.3.6.b: The ditch..............................................................................................................229
5.3.6.C: The talus..............................................................................................................229
5.4: Foxburrow Hill, Hall Farm, Milden Hall, Milden (TL950461)......................................230
5.4.1 : Location and topography.........................................................................................230
5.4.2: Environmental resources...........................................................................................233
5.4.2.a: Geological resources..........................................................................................233
5.4.2.a.i: Solid geology...............................................................................................234
5.4.2.a.i.l: Chalk......................................................................................................234
5.4.2.a.i.2: Crag.......................................................................................................234
5.4.2.a.ii: Drift geology...............................................................................................234
5.4.2.b: Hydrological resources.......................................................................................236
5.4.2.b.i: Watercourses.................................................................................................236
5.4.2.b.ii: Wells............................................................................................................237
5.4.2.b.iii: Ponds..........................................................................................................239
5.4.2.b.iv: Springs........................................................................................................240
5.4.2.C: Historic timber resource.....................................................................................240
5.4.3: Anglo-Saxon Milden..................................................................................................241
5.4.4: Anglo-Norman Milden...............................................................................................243
5.4.5: The archaeology of Milden Hall................................................................................244
5.4.5.a: Green Yard Pond.................................................................................................245
5.4.5.b: Bryants Field.......................................................................................................246
5.4.5.c: Eastern part of Foxburrow Field.........................................................................246
5.4.6: Anglo-Norman lordship, dynasties and agent..........................................................247
5.4.7: Description of earthwork............................................................................................249
5.4.7.a: Western half of Foxburrow Field.......................................................................249
5.4.7.a.i: A central ditched motte................................................................................249
5.4.7.a.ii: The eastern area between the motte and the boundary between the two
halves of Foxburrow Field..........................................................................................250
5.4.7.a.iii: An inner bailey with a northern ditch.......................................................251
5.4.7.a.iv: A northeastern entrance.............................................................................252
5.4.7.a.v: A former castle pond or wet moat..............................................................252
5.4.7.b: The earthworks in the eastern half of Foxburrow Field...............................253
5.4.7.b.i: A rectangular house platform......................................................................253
5.4.7.b.ii: A pit.............................................................................................................254
Chapter 6.0: Discussion, analysis and conclusions.................................................................255
6.1 What were the epistemological and ontological assumptions of this dissertation? 255
6.2 Where in the topography of Suffolk were castles built?...................................................258
6.3 Why are the majority of Suffolk castles made from earth and timber?..........................259
6.4 How does the solid geology of Suffolk influence the location and distribution of castles?
260
6.5 How does the drift geology of Suffolk influence the location and distribution of castles?
261
6.6 How do the combinations of drift and solid geologies in Suffolk influence the location,
distribution and morphology of castles?..................................................................................262
6.7: How does hydrology constrain the location of Suffolk’s castles?..................................263
6.8: How were castles distributed across the different environments and ecologies of
medieval Suffolk?......................................................................................................................265
6.9 What relationship did Suffolk castles have with strategic communications?..................266
6.10: What constraints did the Domesday timber supply place on Suffolk castles?.............267
6.11: How does archeologically attested contemporary carpentry technology influence earth
and timber castle-building?.......................................................................................................269
6.11.1: Earth-fast and ground-sill construction........................................................................269
6.11.2: Simple scarf joints........................................................................................................269
6.12: How did the different contemporary administrative jurisdictions in Suffolk in the 11'**
and 12* century influence castle-building?.............................................................................270
6.12.1: County......................................................................................................................270
6.12.2 The Liberties and geldable Suffolk...........................................................................271
6.12.3. Hundreds.................................................................................................................272
6.13. If free population does not constrain castle-building, what role does Domesday
population play?........................................................................................................................272
6.14: How did the Abbey of St Edmund influence castle building in Suffolk?.....................274
6.15: Who built castles in Suffolk?..........................................................................................276
6.16: What do the Knights of St Edmund tell us about the secular elite in Suffolk?............278
6.17: How was warfare conducted in Suffolk between 1066 and 1200?...............................279
6.18: What role did castles play in warfare?............................................................................280
6.19: How did the crown seek to control castle building in Suffolk?....................................281
6. 20: What were the catalysts for castle-building in Suffolk?...............................................282
6.21 : Why did the number of operational Suffolk castles decline?.....................................285
6.22: Summary...........................................................................................................................286
Bibliography and references cited.............................................................................................288
Volume II
List of Tables..................................................................................................................................370
Figure 1: The headquarters of the 12* (Suffolk) Regiment c.l 878, Bury St Edmunds (Spanton-
Jarman collection).................................................................................................................373
Figure 2: The Merinid citadel of Gibraltar c.l 370-1, also known as the Calahorra or the Tower
of Homage (Fa & Finlayson 2006: 12)................................................................................373
Figure 3. The former headquarters of the Suffolk regiment, now the regimental museum c.2004.
................................................................................................................................................373
Figure 4: Bungay, late 13*-century entrance to the late 12*-century stone keep of a motte and
bailey and stone, earth and timber castle. Rebuilt by Hugh I Bigod c.l 165 as an alternative
baronial caput and replacement for Framlingham, but on the site of an early 12*-century
earth and timber castle..........................................................................................................374
Figure 5: Entrance to the mine driven by the royal engineer Alnoth under Bungay keep c. 1174-5.
................................................................................................................................................374
Figure 6: Framlingham castle c.l 180-90, a replacement of an earlier stone, earth and timber,
motte and bailey, baronial caput castle c.l 100-1140. Note mere beyond castle
(Framlingham castle 2007)...................................................................................................374
Figure 7: Norwich motte and bailey, stone, earth and timber castle. Originally the caput of
Ralph Wader, the Earl of East Anglia. It was successfully besieged c.1075. The present
stone keep was constructed c.l 120 and motte quadrupled in size. It was captured c.l 174 by
Hugh Bigod the Earl of Norfolk. The photograph shows the former buildings of Norwich
prison on the summit, which have now been demolished (Simpson 1949).......................375
Figure 8: Orford castle keep the first all stone castle in Suffolk constructed by Henry II (NSMR.
21408)....................................................................................................................................375
Figure 9: Castle Acre, stone, earth and timber, ring-work castle in Norfolk. Constructed c.l090
as the baronial caput of William I de Warenne. Later rebuilt as a motte and bailey castle in
early 12*-century (NSMR. 21416).......................................................................................375
Figure 10; Thetford earth and timber castle, constructed c.l080. It is the second largest motte in
England and was constructed within an Iron Age hill fort, probably constructed by Roger I
Bigod (Simpson 1949)..........................................................................................................376
Figure 11 : Lidgate stone, earth and timber castle, which survives with a post-12*-century
morphology. Originally constructed early 12*-century as the caput of the de Hasting's
family, the hereditary Stewards of St Edmunds Abbey (SAUSMR LOG 002).................376
Figure 12: Great Ashfield motte and bailey and earth and timber castle. The motte id the circular
area of wood to right of picture. The baronial caput of the Blundus family, which was
probably destroyed before its completion c.l 141-53 (SAUSMR ASG 001).....................376
Figure 13: Goltho, late Anglo-Saxon 11 *-century burgate (Beresford 1987: 32)......................377
Figure 14: Goltho c. 1125-50 (Beresford 1987: 105)....................................................................377
Figure 15: Goltho, section through motte (Beresford 1987: 102)...............................................377
Figure 16: Abinger motte and keep c.l 140, reconstruction (Kenyon 1996: 14)........................378
Figure 17: South Mimms motte, reconstruction (Kenyon 1996: 22).........................................378
Figure 18: South Mimms, section through earthwork (Higham & Barker 1992: 259).............378
Figure 19: Septarium in Bungay museum.....................................................................................379