The Canadian Nursing Service and the British War Office

13 Pages·2015·0.95 MB·English

by  T. Robert Fowler

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Volume 14 Issue 4 Article 4
2005
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T. Robert Fowler
Canadian War Museum, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholars.wlu.ca/cmh
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Fowler, T. Robert "The Canadian Nursing Service and the British War Office: The Debate Over Awarding the
Military Cross, 1918." Canadian Military History 14, 4 (2005)
This Canadian War Museum is brought to you for free and open access by Scholars Commons @ Laurier. It has
been accepted for inclusion in Canadian Military History by an authorized editor of Scholars Commons @ Laurier.
For more information, please contact [email protected].
Fowler: Canadian Nursing Service
The Canadian Nursing Service
and the British War Office
The Debate Over Awarding the
Military Cross, 1918
T. Robert Fowler
The First World War represented the a series of huge offensives against the
full emergence of industrialzed British and French Armies, in hopes
warfare in all its power and horror. With of either defeating them outright or
the adoption of poison gas, unrestricted bringing them to the negotiating table,
submarine attacks, and bombardment the air raids increased in intensity.
from the air well behind the lines, it
saw an expansion in the boundaries Initially, Canadian hospitals were
of warfare, or a willingness to accept spared any direct attack and the
methods of attacking the enemy staff carried on treating the casualties
that would have shocked previous that were flooding in because of the
generations, although certainly not later German offensive. Nonetheless, the
ones. In the spring of 1918, nursing raids were stressful, as described by
sisters with the Canadian Army Medical Corps one nursing sister, Mabel Clint of No. 3 Canadian
(CAMC), experienced first-hand the devastating General Hospital (CGH):
consequences of the new ‘barbarism’ in warfare
To us also it was a nerve-wracking time, as we
when attacks extended even to some of their
were disturbed once and twice nightly if the
hospitals.
weather was clear, and about five nights a week.
Usually about 11 p.m. a maroon [an air raid
The area around the port of Boulogne had warning device that used Morse code as a signal]
become the main base for the British armies would sound the alarm, “Huns over the lines.…”
in France and Belgium. Besides reinforcement All lights were immediately extinguished, and an
camps and supply depots, a large number of eerie silence awaited the first crash. It was not so
much the noise as the concussion on the ground
military hospitals, including the main Canadian
that was the most terrifying, and speculation
hospitals, were located just ten kilometres
never could be sure of the direction, and who or
south of the port, centered upon the small town what had been hit. Breaking of glass, shrapnel
of Étaples. By late 1917, the Germans were from French anti-aircraft posts, sharp machine-
increasingly determined to push the fighting on guns in action,…increased the din.1
the Western Front to a final resolution in their
Under these circumstances, the nursing
favour before the might of the United States,
sisters preferred to be on duty rather than lying
which had entered the war in April, became
in their quarters, wondering what would happen
fully deployed against them. Their air force
next. While in the wards, they could keep busy
began launching frequent night-time air raids
and keep their minds off the fears that would
along the front and bombs began to drop close
naturally arise. They would visit the worst cases
to the hospitals in areas such as Étaples. When,
to make sure all was well, thereby also helping
in March 1918, their armies, bolstered by
the patients endure the anxiety of being under
reinforcements from the Eastern Front, launched
© Canadian Military History, Volume 14, Number 4, Autumn 2005, pp.31-42. 31
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Canadian Military History, Vol. 14 [2005], Iss. 4, Art. 4
attack. Nursing Sister Clint observed that for and bombs hit near the officers’ and nursing
“those who lay helpless in splints, it was a greater sisters’ quarters, destroying the wing used by the
ordeal than fighting, waiting for the next ‘hate’ to nursing sisters on night duty. In addition, No. 7
mangle already crushed frames.”2 CGH and No. 9 Canadian Stationary Hospital
(CSH), to the south and east of No. 1 CGH
Disaster finally struck on the night of 19-20 respectively, along with the adjacent No. 9 CSH,
May 1918. The day had been warm and bright, were also hit, setting staff quarters in both units
and the pleasant weather may have made the staff on fire or riddling them with shrapnel.5
less vigilant than usual. One eyewitness claimed
that, when the general alarm was sounded at Over the two-hour raid, 116 bombs were
2230 hours, the lights of No.1 CGH were not dropped, hitting a total of ten Canadian and
immediately extinguished, making “a brilliant British hospitals and causing a total of 840
and unmistakable target for the oncoming casualties among staff, patients, and civilians.6
aeroplanes.”3 In addition, a train had just passed No.1 CGH was the worst hit, with 139 casualties,
by with its coal box open, throwing a glow on of which 66 were fatal.7 These included three
the track. Some observers later speculated nursing sisters: Katherine Macdonald, who died
that the raiders might have followed this light instantly, and Gladys Wake and Margaret Lowe,
into the hospital complex. In any case, before who were wounded so seriously that they died
the staff could reach their shelters, the bombs within a few days. Five other nursing sisters were
started dropping. The attack by 15 German wounded but recovered. No. 7 CGH also suffered,
bombers appeared to be well organized, coming with 71 casualties, of which 13 were killed,
in two waves over the next two hours. The although none were nursing sisters. No. 9 CSH
men’s quarters of No.1 CGH were first hit by had 18 casualties, including two nursing sisters
an incendiary bomb, setting the building on fire wounded.8 No. 7 CSH had three casualties. One
and killing many of the off-duty men who were off-duty nursing sister later described her ordeal:
sleeping. “There was a loud explosion followed by “I did not at first know I was wounded….I thought
a burst of flame; the huts were soon ablaze and I was gassed. The pile of building material came
afforded an excellent target for the enemy, who down on a mattress and I was nearly smothered,
circled around and dropped other bombs close but wriggled out with great effort.”9
to the spot….The conflagration converted the
huts into a charnel-house.”4 As other staff rushed Frantic efforts went on to rescue those in
forward to help those trapped in the building, collapsed and burning buildings, even while the
one aircraft swooped down to machine-gun the raid continued. All the orderlies in No. 1 CGH
rescuers. A second wave of attackers then arrived were dead or wounded, but some of the off-duty
Nurses at funeral of Nursing Sister Margaret Lowe, who died of wounds
after the bombing of No.1 Canadian General Hospital, Étaples, France,
19 May 1919. Canadian War Museum (CWM) 19930012-155
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Fowler: Canadian Nursing Service
nursing sisters rushed to the operating room Following the shock of the raid, the hospitals
to take their place. Working with the surgeons attempted to get back to normal operations
and duty nursing sisters until dawn, they strove as quickly as possible. The authorities were
desperately to save the most seriously injured. furious, condemning the unprecedented attack as
The other nursing sisters on duty stayed with “murderous,” while one London newspaper called
their patients, calming them during the tumult. it a diabolical crime. Nonetheless, as the future
This was of great emotional help as the hospital of 20th century warfare was to attest, the moral
had a large femur ward where patients were inhibitions about targeting non-combatants were
confined to their beds with their legs in traction. beginning to crumble. The Germans insisted that
In other wards, patients who could be moved were they had not purposely attacked the hospitals,
placed under their beds to give some semblance but the medical staff could not see how the
of protection. The off-duty nurses had been Germans could have missed the large red crosses
instructed to remain in their quarters if such a on the roofs. As a precaution against further
raid were to occur. They did so without complaint attacks, off-duty staff were now sent away during
or confusion, taking shelter as they could from the night, some going to nearby accommodation.
falling debris and shrapnel. The nurse in charge, However, as quarters were limited, the majority,
Matron Edith Campbell, later complimented including some nursing sisters, slept in nearby
them in her report when she wrote, “they acted woods. No raids occurred for the next week but
as though they considered themselves fortunate a number of alarms were sounded.12
in having an opportunity of sharing the horrors
that our men undergo daily in the front areas.”10 Then, on the night of 29-30 May, the Germans
struck again – this time against No. 3 CGH,
Nursing Sister Mabel Clint reported another located about 70 kilometres inland from Étaples
incident that must have been related to Gladys at Doullens. Only a single German aircraft made
Wake, who had sustained a critical bomb wound this attack, but it inflicted terrible damage – 32
to her leg: staff and patients were killed and 17 wounded.
Approaching the hospital just after midnight, the
One Sister went out to get morphia for a aircraft first dropped a flare to light up its target,
companion bleeding to death, and others
following up immediately with several bombs.
rendered first aid, literally under fire. “I
One of these hit the main building, just over the
thought the girls were splendid,” wrote an eye-
witness: “Sister W…dying out on the hillside, sergeant’s quarters, which were on the third
and knowing it, yet begging them not to bring floor. The entire central structure collapsed and
stretcher bearers into that inferno, when it could burst into flames, including the officers’ ward on
not save her. All the while saying, just as the men the second floor and the Operating Theatre on
do, “Don’t bother with me; I’ll be all right. You
the ground floor. All occupants on these floors
people will be exhausted.”11
were killed or wounded. An operation was being
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Above: Soldiers carrying casket bearing remains of Nursing
Sister Margaret Lowe to her grave, Étaples, France, May 1918.
Below: Lowe’s coffin being lowered into grave.
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Above: Funeral of Nursing Sister Gladys Wake, who died of wounds received
in the bombing of No.1 Canadian General Hospital, Étaples, France, 19 May 1918.
Below: Nursing sisters placing flowers on grave of NS Margaret Lowe, Étaples, France, May 1918.
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Canadian nursing sisters cleaning up ward of hospital after an unidentified bombing raid.
Note the multiple perforations in the tin wall caused by the bomb blast.
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carried out in the Operating Theatre at the time that of 19 May – lasting two and a half hours, 4
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and the entire surgical team and their patient with flares, which had been dropped to light up A
P
were killed, including Nursing Sisters Eden the area, and return anti-aircraft fire. Only one a
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Pringle and Agnes MacPherson. On the second bomb hit the hospital area, seriously damaging a
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a
floor, the nursing sister on duty, Dorothy Baldwin, two wards. Since sandbags had been brought in C
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was also killed. to strengthen the walls, however, just one patient e
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was wounded. Unfortunately, “the effect of the hi
c
Next to the Operating Theatre, parts of the lights, the whistling of the bombs, the terrific Ar
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Recovery Room collapsed, injuring Nursing explosions, the uncertainty where the next crash an
Sisters Meta Hodge and Eleanor Thompson. would come, the cries from the femur wards, ary
However, these two nurses were able to extricate where the unfortunates had lost much of their br
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themselves from the rubble and, maintaining fortitude and self-control, all combined to strike
their composure, extinguished the fires in the terror into the stoutest hearts.”14 Here the moral
overturned coal oil heaters before the flames strength of the nursing sisters was greatly needed
spread to the patients’ beds. They then organized and they did “splendid work” relieving the anxiety
the orderlies to remove the patients from the of the men. Matron Edith Campbell admitted,
room and, disregarding their injuries, remained however, that the raid “was much harder to bear
until this work was completed.13 than the others, with much greater strain on both
the nursing sisters and officers on duty.”15
At 2200 hours on 31 May, another flight of
German bombers attacked Étaples. This was a The senior officers were impressed by
longer and in some ways more terrifying raid than the behaviour of their staff, who had coped
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Fowler: Canadian Nursing Service
5 well both during and after the bombings. The only males served in military forces. Canada,
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2- officers commanding the hospitals at Étaples however, had broken with this tradition during
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0 wanted to give full credit in particular to the the South African War (1899-1902). During
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93 nursing sisters. As the anonymous author of that war, the government had recruited a total
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1 the history of No. 7 (Queen’s) Canadian General of 12 nurses to serve with the British Army’s
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W Hospital wrote in 1917: “There is a great deal in medical services in South Africa. Like their
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the papers these days about our armies … But British nursing service counterparts, they were
how much, I wonder, does the average man or termed “nursing sisters.” But, unlike them,
woman know of the Hospitals in France, or of the the Canadians received the “relative rank of
hundreds of Canadian Nursing Sisters … who lieutenant with pay and allowances and in every
nurse and cheer the men, thus doing so much way the equal and status to other officers of that
good for their country.”16 Consequently, shortly rank.”18 The success of the Canadian nurses’
after 30 May, Canadian authorities submitted work in South Africa resulted in a nursing service
recommendations for awarding the Military being added to the strength of the Army Medical
Cross to one matron and 15 nursing sisters for Corps when it was created in 1904. At the start
courageous action under enemy fire. As Matron of the First World War, five nursing sisters were
Violet Nesbitt of No. 1 CGH wrote in her War included among the Canadian army’s cadre of
Diary: “The Sisters on duty, all praise be to them 127 permanent medical personnel.
for coolness, courage, unselfish devotion to their
duties.”17 When preparing the recommendation for a
gallantry award, normal practice asked submitting
This recommendation for a gallantry officers to designate the appropriate award. As
decoration to women was another remarkable the Canadian nursing sisters were officers with
result of the evolving conditions of warfare. the relative rank of lieutenant, it therefore seemed
Prior to this period, women would not have been clear to the Canadian authorities in France that
considered eligible for such a reward because they should make out the recommendation for
Canadian Nursing Sisters working amongst the ruins of the No.1 Canadian
General Hospital, which was bombed by the Germans, killing three nurses, June 1918.
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Above: Nursing sister survey the remains of German bomber, shot down near their hospital.
Below: Funeral of Canadian Nursing Sister and one American doctor killed in bombing
raid on No.3 Canadian Stationary Hospital, Doullens, France, 30/31 May 1918.
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the Military Cross, which had been created in Office’s case to the Military Secretary, Canadian
December 1914 as a reward for junior officers.19 Headquarters, Overseas Military Forces for
But when these recommendations arrived at Canada (OMFC) on 20 August: “Military Medals
General Headquarters (GHQ), they created only will be granted to women for acts of gallantry
problems. The British authorities did not dispute and this includes nursing sisters in the Canadian
that the nursing sisters should receive a gallantry Service.”20
decoration, but concluded that they were only
eligible for the Military Medal, which was reserved The British government had instituted the
for non-commissioned officers and privates. As Military Medal (MM) on 25 March 1916, to fill a
Brigadier General J.L. Embury, commanding need that had become apparent by the intensity
the Canadian Section at GHQ, reported the War and duration of the conflict. Up to that time,
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Fowler: Canadian Nursing Service
2 only the Distinguished Conduct Medal (DCM) In his letter of August 20, Brigadier General
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2- had been available for non-commissioned Embury rebuked Colonel Gunn for this stand,
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0 officers and privates. As the DCM was the second stating that “it is perfectly satisfactory to the
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93 highest to the Victoria Cross, another medal Canadian authorities that our nursing sisters
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1 was deemed necessary to reward those men receive Military Medals. As a Military Medal is
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W whose act of courage did not meet the DCM’s given only for gallantry in the Field, it would,
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requirements. Within a month of the Military in the minds of most people, be considered
Medal’s institution, however, new candidates had quite as honourable as a Military Cross…. It
emerged as potential recipients. Some French seems to me, however, an extraordinary thing
and Belgian civilian women had been singled that a communication be sent to the Military
out for their courage, one of whom had received Secretary stating that these awards were not
the French Croix de Guerre. When informed of acceptable....”24
this, King George V raised the question whether
Great Britain should also create some means of The stubborn refusal by Canadian medical
rewarding women for acts of gallantry.21 There officers to accept the ruling next led Brigadier-
was some concern that the Germans might view General Embury to raise the issue with the
this initiative as encouraging civilian aggression senior Canadian officer at OMFC, Lieutenant-
in the occupied territories but, in the end, an General Sir Richard Turner, VC. Embury had
amending Warrant was issued on 21 June 1916 not anticipated Gunn’s rejection to the War
giving authority for the Commander-in-Chief in Office’s position and had already informed the
the Field to award the Military Medal to women Military Secretary at GHQ that the Canadian
who had shown bravery and devotion to duty. Nurses would accept the Military Medal. He now
The first to be awarded the new decoration was asked Turner to inform Foster, Director General
the French civilian Émilienne Moreau who, in of Medical Services in OMFC, what he had told
September 1915, had provided assistance under GHQ. Embury emphasized that he did not “wish
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17 fire to the British forces attacking the city of to have any misunderstanding with General
12- Loos. She was presented with her award at the Foster on this or any other subject…I am sure he
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30 British Embassy in Paris on 28 July 1916.22 By will agree that the course was a proper one, but I
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9 April 1918, 59 additional awards to women had am anxious not to appear to have acted without
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M appeared in the London Gazette, the official regard to his opinion.”
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C publication that announced all such awards.
However, Foster’s opinion was that the nursing
The Canadians had shown independence of sisters of the CAMC had a special status that
mind in many matters in the war. Still, it came as should be considered by the War Office. Among all
a bit of surprise to the British when Colonel John the British and Commonwealth medical services,
Gunn, Officer Commanding No.1 CGH, reacted it was only the Canadians who had decided to
in defence of his nursing sisters and disregarded integrate their nursing service into the army and
military protocol by replying that limiting the had given the nursing sisters the “relative rank of
award to the Military Medal was not acceptable lieutenant.” In all the other Imperial forces, the
for Canadian nurses. The Canadian Director nurses were civilian auxiliaries with no official
General Medical Services (DGMS), Major-General rank or status.25 In the British Army, for example,
G.L. Foster, supported him, arguing that, they came under Queen Alexandra’s Imperial
Military Nursing Service, as well as several other
the CAMC Nursing Service is classified as independent organizations. Thus, acts of courage
Officers, and it is the opinion of this Branch that under enemy fire by nurses in these units would
it would be an injustice to the Nursing Service
properly be rewarded by the Military Medal. In
to ask them to accept the award of the Military
the Canadian forces, however, nursing sisters
Medal, as practically classifying them as Other
Ranks. The Nursing Sisters themselves are were considered officers for all practical intents
strongly of this opinion. In a recent ruling the and purposes. As one contemporary author
Military Cross is now awarded for acts of bravery argued, “when signing on with the CAMC for
during air raids, and the Nursing Service of
overseas service, the nursing Sister was given the
the Canadian Army Medical Corps should be
same Attestation Paper as a man. She contracted
considered eligible for the award of the Military
to serve for six months after the war’s end or
Cross, if so recommended.23
until legally discharged; swore true allegiance
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