THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF AFRICA Volume i

1106 Pages·2009·24.23 MB·English

THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY
OF AFRICA
General Editors: J. D. FAGE and ROLAND OLIVER
Volume i
From the Earliest Times to c. 500 BC
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY
OF AFRICA
i From the Earliest Times to c. 500 BC
edited by J. Desmond Clark
2 From c. 500 BC to AD 1050
edited by J. D. Fage
3 From c. 1050 to c. 1600
edited by Roland Oliver
4 From c. 1600 to c. 1790
edited by Richard Gray
5 From c, 1790 to c. 1870
edited by John Flint
6 From c. 1870 to c. 1905
edited by G. N. Sanderson
7 From c. 1905 to c. 1940
edited by A. D. Roberts
8 From c. 1940 to 1975
edited by Michael Crowder
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
THE CAMBRIDGE
HISTORY OF
AFRICA
Volume i
From the Earliest Times to c. 500 BC
edited by
J. DESMOND CLARK
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1RP
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011, USA
10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia
©Cambridge University Press 1982
First published 1982
Reprinted, 1987, 1989, 1995, 1997
Printed in Great Britain at Athenseum Press, Gateshead, Tyne & Wear
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
The Cambridge history of Africa.
Vol. 1: From the earliest times to c. 500 B.C.
1. Africa— History
I. Clark, John Desmond
960 DT20 79-41599
ISBN 0 521 22215 X
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
CONTENTS
Ust of figures page x
Ust of plates xix
Preface xxi
1 The palaeo-ecology of the African continent: the
physical environment of Africa from the earliest
geological to Later Stone Age times i
by KARL W. BUTZER, Departmen/ of Anthropology,
University of Chicago, Illinois, and H. B. S. COOKE,
Department of Geology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova
Scotia
The evolution of the continent i
The Africa of the earliest tool-makers 24
The Africa of Acheulian man 39
The Africa of the Middle Stone Age and Later Stone 55
Age
2 Origins and evolution of African Hominidae 70
by F. CLARK HOWELL, Department of Anthropology,
University of California, Berkeley
Introduction 70
Stratigraphic and geographic setting 71
Australopithecus 81
The genus Homo Linnaeus, 1758 106
Coexistence of hominid taxa 147
Extinctions 148
Cultural associations 150
Palaeo-environmental settings 15 6
Conclusion 156
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
CONTENTS
3 The earliest archaeological traces 157
by GLYNN LL. ISAAC, Department of Anthropology,
University of California, Berkeley
Introduction to the evidence 15 7
East Africa 189
Southern Africa 206
The Congo basin and adjoining areas 213
Tropical West Africa 215
North-west Africa and the Sahara 217
The Nile Valley and adjoining desert oases 221
Some generalizations and interpretations 224
4 The cultures of the Middle Palaeolithic/Middle
Stone Age 248
by J. DESMOND CLARK, Department of Anthropology,
University of California, Berkeley
Introduction 248
Origins and chronology 251
Technology 254
North Africa 256
Ethiopia and the Horn 274
East Africa 280
West Africa and the forest/savanna regions of
Equatoria 286
The woodlands and grasslands of south central Africa 293
Southern Africa 296
Zimbabwe 312
Middle Stone Age traditions 315
Human remains 319
Middle Stone Age regional patterning, behaviour and
economy 323
Conclusion 34°
5 The Late Palaeolithic and Epi-Paiaeolithic of
northern Africa 342
by PHILIP E. L. SMITH, Departement d'Anthropologie,
Universite de Montreal
Introduction 342
Cyrenaica and northern Libya 350
The lower Nile Valley and adjacent oases 357
VI
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CONTENTS
The Maghrib 377
The Sahara 394
The early art of North Africa 397
Physical types and races in North Africa 401
Conclusions and interpretations 404
6 The Later Stone Age in sub-Saharan Africa 410
by D. W. PHILLIPSON, Department of Archaeology,
Ethnography and History, Glasgow Museums and Art Galleries
Archaeological evidence for the Later Stone Age of
sub-Saharan Africa 415
West Africa 415
The central Sudan and the Congo basin 422
Eastern Africa 427
Ethiopia and the Horn 433
South central Africa 441
Southern Africa 45 2
The industrial successions 463
Physical anthropology 469
Economic summary 472
Rock art 475
Conclusion 477
7 The rise of civilization in Egypt 478
by B. G. TRIGGER, Department of Anthropology, McGill
University, Montreal
Orientation 478
Predynastic Egypt 490
Early Dynastic Egypt 5 21
Conclusions 545
Appendix: chronology of the Early Dynastic Period 5 46
8 Beginnings of pastoralism and cultivation in
north-west Africa and the Sahara: origins of the
Berbers 548
translated from the French of G. CAMPS, haboratoire
d'Anthropologie et de Prehistoire des Pays de la Mediterranee
occidentale, Universite de Provence
The spread of the Neolithic 5 5 3
vii
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CONTENTS
The Saharan—Sudanese Neolithic 559
The pastoral Neolithic of the Bovidians and the
Tenerean 5 71
The Mediterranean Neolithic 582
The Neolithic of Capsian Tradition and the rock art of
the Atlas 595
The Metal Age and the origins of the Berbers 612
9 The origins of indigenous African agriculture 624
by JACK R. HARLAN, Department of Agronomy, University
of Illinois College of Agriculture, Urbana, Illinois
Nature of the evidence 624
Principles of plant domestication 630
The savanna complex 635
The forest-margin complex 645
The Ethiopian complex 647
Migration of African crops to Asia 648
Imported crop complexes 649
Indigenous agricultural techniques 650
Agriculture and religious outlook 654
10 Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second
Intermediate Period in Egypt 658
by BARRY J. KEMP, Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of
Cambridge
Divine kingship 658
The royal family 663
The central administration 667
Pious foundations 672
The Memphite court cemeteries 673
Provincial Egypt 683
The First Intermediate Period 699
The African hinterland 703
Egypt and the Mediterranean world 724
The Second Intermediate Period in Egypt 736
The Second Intermediate Period in Nubia 747
The Theban defeat of the Hyksos and of Kush 760
Explanations of historical change in the Old and
Middle Kingdoms 761
vm
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
CONTENTS
11 Early food production in sub-Saharan Africa 770
by D. W. PHILLIPSON
West Africa 774
The Congo basin 789
Eastern Africa 753
South central Africa 809
South Africa 820
Conclusions 827
12 Egypt, 1552—664 BC 830
by DAVID O'CONNOR, University Museum of the University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Prolegomena 830
The Egyptian world-view 835
Internal history 849
The New Kingdom 850
The Third Intermediate Period 879
The onset of the Late Period 896
Egypt's relations with Africa 899
Relations with Kush and the eastern desert 902
Egypt and Punt 917
Egypt and Libya 918
Appendix: the toponyms of Nubia and of contiguous
regions in the New Kingdom 925
Bibliographical essays 941
Bibliography 971
Index 1089
IX
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
FIGURES
i. i Simplified geological map of Africa page 3
1.2 Generalized map of the major orogenic structural
units of Africa 5
1.3 Reconstructions of the continents and of their
break-up and separation during the Mesozoic Era 10
1.4 Map showing the tectonic basins of Africa and the
intervening swells 12
1.5 Map showing the principal fossil mammal localities in
Africa 18
1.6 Simplified map of vegetation in Africa 21
1.7 Map showing the environmental zonation of Africa 22
1.8 Stages in the development of a typical Transvaal cave
breccia 29
1.9 Provisional correlation of major later Miocene to
Pleistocene deposits in East Africa 32
1.10 Map showing the Pleistocene and Holocene areas
studied in Africa 40
1.11 Late Pleistocene and Holocene climatic change 65
2.1 Map showing the principal African localities of late
Cenozoic age yielding skeletal remains of Hominidae 72
2.2 Relative and absolute ages of successions in eastern
Africa yielding remains of Hominidae 73
2.3 Tentative correlation and suggested age-relationships
of localities in South Africa yielding remains of
Hominidae 76
2.4 Tentative correlation and age-relationships of localities
in North Africa yielding remains of Hominidae 77
2.5 Tentative correlation and suggested age-relationships
of localities of later Quaternary age yielding remains
of Hominidae 78
2.6 Lateral and facial views of the restored cranium of
Australopithecus africanus (based on specimens from
Sterkfontein) 90
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008