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THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF AFRICA General Editors: J. D. FAGE and ROLAND OLIVER Volume i From the Earliest Times to c. 500 BC Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF AFRICA i From the Earliest Times to c. 500 BC edited by J. Desmond Clark 2 From c. 500 BC to AD 1050 edited by J. D. Fage 3 From c. 1050 to c. 1600 edited by Roland Oliver 4 From c. 1600 to c. 1790 edited by Richard Gray 5 From c, 1790 to c. 1870 edited by John Flint 6 From c. 1870 to c. 1905 edited by G. N. Sanderson 7 From c. 1905 to c. 1940 edited by A. D. Roberts 8 From c. 1940 to 1975 edited by Michael Crowder Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF AFRICA Volume i From the Earliest Times to c. 500 BC edited by J. DESMOND CLARK CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 Published by the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1RP 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011, USA 10 Stamford Road, Oakleigh, Melbourne 3166, Australia ©Cambridge University Press 1982 First published 1982 Reprinted, 1987, 1989, 1995, 1997 Printed in Great Britain at Athenseum Press, Gateshead, Tyne & Wear British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data The Cambridge history of Africa. Vol. 1: From the earliest times to c. 500 B.C. 1. Africa— History I. Clark, John Desmond 960 DT20 79-41599 ISBN 0 521 22215 X Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CONTENTS Ust of figures page x Ust of plates xix Preface xxi 1 The palaeo-ecology of the African continent: the physical environment of Africa from the earliest geological to Later Stone Age times i by KARL W. BUTZER, Departmen/ of Anthropology, University of Chicago, Illinois, and H. B. S. COOKE, Department of Geology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia The evolution of the continent i The Africa of the earliest tool-makers 24 The Africa of Acheulian man 39 The Africa of the Middle Stone Age and Later Stone 55 Age 2 Origins and evolution of African Hominidae 70 by F. CLARK HOWELL, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley Introduction 70 Stratigraphic and geographic setting 71 Australopithecus 81 The genus Homo Linnaeus, 1758 106 Coexistence of hominid taxa 147 Extinctions 148 Cultural associations 150 Palaeo-environmental settings 15 6 Conclusion 156 Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CONTENTS 3 The earliest archaeological traces 157 by GLYNN LL. ISAAC, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley Introduction to the evidence 15 7 East Africa 189 Southern Africa 206 The Congo basin and adjoining areas 213 Tropical West Africa 215 North-west Africa and the Sahara 217 The Nile Valley and adjoining desert oases 221 Some generalizations and interpretations 224 4 The cultures of the Middle Palaeolithic/Middle Stone Age 248 by J. DESMOND CLARK, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley Introduction 248 Origins and chronology 251 Technology 254 North Africa 256 Ethiopia and the Horn 274 East Africa 280 West Africa and the forest/savanna regions of Equatoria 286 The woodlands and grasslands of south central Africa 293 Southern Africa 296 Zimbabwe 312 Middle Stone Age traditions 315 Human remains 319 Middle Stone Age regional patterning, behaviour and economy 323 Conclusion 34° 5 The Late Palaeolithic and Epi-Paiaeolithic of northern Africa 342 by PHILIP E. L. SMITH, Departement d'Anthropologie, Universite de Montreal Introduction 342 Cyrenaica and northern Libya 350 The lower Nile Valley and adjacent oases 357 VI Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CONTENTS The Maghrib 377 The Sahara 394 The early art of North Africa 397 Physical types and races in North Africa 401 Conclusions and interpretations 404 6 The Later Stone Age in sub-Saharan Africa 410 by D. W. PHILLIPSON, Department of Archaeology, Ethnography and History, Glasgow Museums and Art Galleries Archaeological evidence for the Later Stone Age of sub-Saharan Africa 415 West Africa 415 The central Sudan and the Congo basin 422 Eastern Africa 427 Ethiopia and the Horn 433 South central Africa 441 Southern Africa 45 2 The industrial successions 463 Physical anthropology 469 Economic summary 472 Rock art 475 Conclusion 477 7 The rise of civilization in Egypt 478 by B. G. TRIGGER, Department of Anthropology, McGill University, Montreal Orientation 478 Predynastic Egypt 490 Early Dynastic Egypt 5 21 Conclusions 545 Appendix: chronology of the Early Dynastic Period 5 46 8 Beginnings of pastoralism and cultivation in north-west Africa and the Sahara: origins of the Berbers 548 translated from the French of G. CAMPS, haboratoire d'Anthropologie et de Prehistoire des Pays de la Mediterranee occidentale, Universite de Provence The spread of the Neolithic 5 5 3 vii Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CONTENTS The Saharan—Sudanese Neolithic 559 The pastoral Neolithic of the Bovidians and the Tenerean 5 71 The Mediterranean Neolithic 582 The Neolithic of Capsian Tradition and the rock art of the Atlas 595 The Metal Age and the origins of the Berbers 612 9 The origins of indigenous African agriculture 624 by JACK R. HARLAN, Department of Agronomy, University of Illinois College of Agriculture, Urbana, Illinois Nature of the evidence 624 Principles of plant domestication 630 The savanna complex 635 The forest-margin complex 645 The Ethiopian complex 647 Migration of African crops to Asia 648 Imported crop complexes 649 Indigenous agricultural techniques 650 Agriculture and religious outlook 654 10 Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period in Egypt 658 by BARRY J. KEMP, Faculty of Oriental Studies, University of Cambridge Divine kingship 658 The royal family 663 The central administration 667 Pious foundations 672 The Memphite court cemeteries 673 Provincial Egypt 683 The First Intermediate Period 699 The African hinterland 703 Egypt and the Mediterranean world 724 The Second Intermediate Period in Egypt 736 The Second Intermediate Period in Nubia 747 The Theban defeat of the Hyksos and of Kush 760 Explanations of historical change in the Old and Middle Kingdoms 761 vm Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008 CONTENTS 11 Early food production in sub-Saharan Africa 770 by D. W. PHILLIPSON West Africa 774 The Congo basin 789 Eastern Africa 753 South central Africa 809 South Africa 820 Conclusions 827 12 Egypt, 1552—664 BC 830 by DAVID O'CONNOR, University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Prolegomena 830 The Egyptian world-view 835 Internal history 849 The New Kingdom 850 The Third Intermediate Period 879 The onset of the Late Period 896 Egypt's relations with Africa 899 Relations with Kush and the eastern desert 902 Egypt and Punt 917 Egypt and Libya 918 Appendix: the toponyms of Nubia and of contiguous regions in the New Kingdom 925 Bibliographical essays 941 Bibliography 971 Index 1089 IX Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008