The Cambridge Handbook of Artificial Intelligence

367 Pages·2014·4.93 MB·English

by  Keith Frankish

The Cambridge Handbook of
Artificial Intelligence
Artificialintelligence,orAI,isacross-disciplinaryapproachto
understanding,modeling,andcreatingintelligenceofvariousforms.Itisa
criticalbranchofcognitivescience,anditsinfluenceisincreasinglybeing
feltinotherareas,includingthehumanities.AIapplicationsare
transformingthewayweinteractwitheachotherandwithourenvironment,
andworkinartificiallymodelingintelligenceisofferingnewinsightsinto
thehumanmindandrevealingnewformsmentalitycantake.Thisvolumeof
originalessayspresentsthestateoftheartinAI,surveyingthefoundations
ofthediscipline,majortheoriesofmentalarchitecture,theprincipalareasof
research,andextensionsofAIsuchasartificiallife.Withafocusontheory
ratherthantechnicalandappliedissues,thevolumewillbevaluablenot
onlytopeopleworkinginAI,butalsotothoseinotherdisciplineswanting
anauthoritativeandup-to-dateintroductiontothefield.
KeithFrankishisVisitingSeniorResearchFellowatTheOpenUniversityUK
andAdjunctProfessorwiththeBrainandMindPrograminNeurosciencesat
theUniversityofCrete.HeistheauthorofMind and Supermind(Cambridge,
2004)andConsciousness(2005).Heisco-editorofIn Two Minds: Dual
Processes and Beyond(withJonathanStB.T.Evans,2009),New Waves in
Philosophy of Action(withJesu´sH.AguilarandAndreiA.Buckareff,2010),
andThe Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Science(withWilliamM.Ramsey,
Cambridge,2012).
WilliamM.RamseyisAssociateProfessorofPhilosophyattheUniversityof
Nevada,LasVegas.HeistheauthorofRepresentation Reconsidered
(Cambridge,2007)andco-editorofPhilosophy and Connectionist Theory
(withDavidRumelhartandStephenStich,1991),Rethinking Intuition(with
MichaelDePaul,1998),andThe Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Science
(withKeithFrankish,Cambridge,2012).

The Cambridge Handbook of
Artificial Intelligence
EDITED BY
Keith Frankish and William M. Ramsey
UniversityPrintingHouse,CambridgeCB28BS,UnitedKingdom
CambridgeUniversityPressispartoftheUniversityofCambridge.
ItfurtherstheUniversity’smissionbydisseminatingknowledgeinthepursuitof
education,learningandresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence.
www.cambridge.org
Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9780521691918
(cid:2)C CambridgeUniversityPress2014
Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception
andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,
noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten
permissionofCambridgeUniversityPress.
Firstpublished2014
PrintedintheUnitedKingdombyClays,StIvesplc
AcataloguerecordforthispublicationisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
LibraryofCongressCataloguinginPublicationdata
TheCambridgehandbookofartificialintelligence/editedbyKeithFrankishand
WilliamM.Ramsey.
pages cm
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-0-521-87142-6(hardback)–ISBN978-0-521-69191-8(paperback)
1.Artificialintelligence–Philosophy. I.Frankish,Keith.
II.Ramsey,WilliamM.,1960–editorofcompilation. III.
Title:Handbookofartificialintelligence.
Q335.C26 2014
006.3–dc23 2013048906
ISBN978-0-521-87142-6Hardback
ISBN978-0-521-69191-8Paperback
CambridgeUniversityPresshasnoresponsibilityforthepersistenceoraccuracyof
URLsforexternalorthird-partyinternetwebsitesreferredtointhispublication,
anddoesnotguaranteethatanycontentonsuchwebsitesis,orwillremain,
accurateorappropriate.
Contents
Listoffigures page vii
Notesoncontributors ix
Acknowledgments xii
Introduction 1
KeithFrankishandWilliamM.Ramsey
PartI Foundations
1 History,motivations,andcorethemes 15
StanFranklin
2 Philosophicalfoundations 34
KonstantineArkoudasandSelmerBringsjord
3 Philosophicalchallenges 64
WilliamS.Robinson
PartII Architectures
4 GOFAI 89
MargaretA.Boden
5 Connectionismandneuralnetworks 108
RonSun
6 Dynamicalsystemsandembeddedcognition 128
RandallD.Beer
PartIII Dimensions
7 Learning 151
DavidDanks
8 Perceptionandcomputervision 168
MarkusVincze,SvenWachsmuth,andGerhardSagerer
9 Reasoninganddecisionmaking 191
EyalAmir
vi Contents
10 Languageandcommunication 213
YorickWilks
11 Actionsandagents 232
EduardoAlonso
12 Artificialemotionsandmachineconsciousness 247
MatthiasScheutz
PartIV Extensions
13 Robotics 269
PhilHusbands
14 Artificiallife 296
MarkA.Bedau
15 Theethicsofartificialintelligence 316
NickBostromandEliezerYudkowsky
Glossary 335
Index 343
Figures
1.1 Asimpleartificialneuron. page17
5.1 Theoverallstructureofaconnectionistproductionsystem. 117
5.2 TheCLARIONarchitecture. 121
6.1 Anagentanditsenvironmentarecoupleddynamical
systems.Theagentinturniscomposedofcouplednervous
systemandbodydynamicalsystems. 137
8.1 Animageisgivenbya2Dpixelarraywhereeachpixel
measurestheamountoflighttravelingalongaray. 169
8.2 Computervisionasaknowledge-engineeringtask. 170
8.3 3Dscenegeometry. 171
8.4 2Dscenegeometry. 171
8.5 Patternclassification. 172
8.6 Twodifferentperspectivesoncomputervision. 173
8.7 Matchingresultbasedonlocaldescriptors(hereSIFT;
Lowe,2004). 176
8.8 Detectionresultsforadiningchairinahomescene
(WohlkingerandVincze,2010). 177
8.9 Basicblockdiagramofvisualservoing. 179
8.10 Anexampleofmodel-basedvision. 181
9.1 ABayesiannetworkgraphrepresentingajointdistribution
overbinaryvariablesRain,Wet,Sprinklerand
multi-valuedrandomvariableMoney. 198
9.2 Aminimaxtreeofdepth2. 205
13.1 GreyWalterwatchesoneofhistortoisespushasidesome
woodenblocksonitswaybacktoitsrecharginghutch.
Circa1952. 271
13.2 Anarticulatedindustrialrobotarm. 272
13.3 Shakeytherobotin1970reasoningaboutcoloredblocks
initsenvironment.CourtesyofSRIInternational. 274
13.4 Pipelineoffunctionallydecomposedprocessingusedin
muchclassicalAIrobotics(afterBrooks1986). 274
13.5 Theparallelbehavioraldecompositionforrobotcontrolas
advocatedbyBrooksandthebehavior-basedapproach.
DecompositionfromBrooks(1986). 276
viii Listoffigures
13.6 Kismet,arobotdesignedbyCynthiaBreazealtotakepart
insocialinteractionswithhumans.Reproducedwith
permission. 278
13.7 Keyelementsoftheevolutionaryroboticsapproach.
ThankstoVolkoStraubfortheimage. 280
13.8 AnearlyversionoftheSussexgantryrobotright(b)was
a“hardwaresimulation”ofarobotsuchasthatshown
left(a). 282
13.9 Schematicdiagramofadistributedneuralnetworkforthe
controloflocomotionasusedbyBeer,Chiel,andSterling
(1989)andgeneralizedarchitectureusingafullyconnected
dynamicalnetworkcontrollerforeachleg(a),
cross-coupledasshown(b). 284
13.10 Afullyautomaticallyevolvedrobotdevelopedbythe
Golemproject(seetextfordetails).Usedwithpermission. 286
13.11 (a)Abeeflyingdownatunnelwithpatternedwalls(credit:
Science,vol.287)and(b)arobotbuiltbytheResearch
SchoolofBiologicalSciences,AustralianNational
Universitytodemonstratenavigationstrategiesbasedon
observationsoftheuseofopticflowforinsects. 287
14.1 AsequenceoffivestepsintheevolutionoftheGameof
Life.FiguresproducedusingGolly2.1,availableonthe
webathttp://golly.sourcefourge.net/. 301
14.2 Theevolutionoftheso-called“r-pentomino”shownat
times1,100,and200.FiguresproducedusingGolly2.1,
availableonthewebathttp://golly.sourcefourge.net/. 302
Notes on contributors
EduardoAlonsoisReaderinComputingattheDepartmentofComputer
Science,CityUniversityLondon.Hehaspublishedhisresearchinjournals
suchasKnowledge Engineering ReviewandArtificial Intelligence Review,
andinvariousSpringerLectureNotesinArtificalIntelligence(LNAI)and
LectureNotesinComputerScience(LNCS)volumes,andhehasediteda
specialissueofInternational Journal of Autonomous Agents and
Multi-Agent SystemsonMulti-AgentLearning.
EyalAmirisAssociateProfessorofComputerScienceattheUniversityof
IllinoisatUrbana-Champaign(UIUC).HisresearchfocusesonAI,specifically
reasoning,learning,anddecisionmakingwithlogicalandprobabilistic
knowledge.In2006EyalwaschosenbytheInstituteofElectricaland
ElectronicsEngineers(IEEE)asoneofthe“10towatchinAI.”
KonstantineArkoudasisanAIresearchscientistatAppliedCommunication
Sciences,withafocusonreasoningandknowledgeengineering.Hehas
publishedmanyarticlesinAIandcomputerscience,aswellasin
philosophy,ontopicsrangingfromphilosophyofmindandcognitive
sciencetoepistemologyandphilosophyofmathematics.
MarkA.BedauisProfessorofPhilosophyandHumanitiesatReedCollege,
andEditor-in-ChiefofthejournalArtificial Life.Hehasco-authoredor
co-editedEmergence(2008),Protocells: Bridging Non living and Living
Matter(2009),The Ethics of Protocells: Moral and Social Implications of
Creating Life in the Laboratory(2009),andThe Nature of Life(Cambridge,
2010).
RandallD.BeerisaProfessorofInformaticsandComputingintheCognitive
ScienceprogramatIndianaUniversity.HeistheauthorofIntelligence as
Adaptive Behavior(1990)andtheeditorofBiological Neural Networks in
Invertebrate Neuroethology and Robotics(1993),aswellasnumerousarticles.
MargaretA.BodenisResearchProfessorofCognitiveScienceatthe
UniversityofSussex.SheistheauthorofThe Creative Mind(2004),Mind as
Machine: A History of Cognitive Science(2006),Creativity and Art(2011),
andseveralotherbooksplusmanyjournalarticles.
NickBostromisProfessorintheFacultyofPhilosophyatOxfordUniversity
andDirectoroftheFutureofHumanityInstitutewithintheOxfordMartin