Table Of Content

THE CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOLOGY General Editor David Matsumoto San Francisco State University CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521854702 © Cambridge University Press 2009 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2009 ISBN-13 978-0-511-63157-3 eBook (Dawsonera) ISBN-13 978-0-521-85470-2 Hardback ISBN-13 978-0-521-67100-2 Paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. This book is dedicated to all of the pioneers and scholars of psychology who have contributed to the fi eld as it is today, and to those who will mold it into what it will be tomorrow. EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-Chief David Matsumoto San Francisco State University, USA Editorial Advisory Board Jeanette Altarriba Matt Huss SUNY – Albany, USA Creighton University, USA Susan Burns Ken Keith Washburn University, USA University of San Diego, USA Edward Chang Robert McCrae University of Michigan, USA National Institute on Aging, USA Chi-Yue Chiu Dan Moriarty University of Illinois – Urbana-Champaign, USA University of San Diego, USA Steve Davis Loreto Prieto Emporia State University (Emeritus), USA University of Akron, USA Dale Dinnel Eleanor Rosch Western Washington University, USA University of California, Berkeley, USA Harry Gardiner University of Wisconsin, La Crosse (Emeritus), USA Managing Editors John Adamopoulos Deborah Best Grand Valley State University, USA Wake Forest University, USA Veronica Benet-Martinez Klaus Boehnke University of California, Riverside, USA International University, Bremen, Germany vii Editorial Board Cindy Gallois Ute Schonpfl ug The University of Queensland, Australia Free University, Berlin, Germany ICS University of Colorado, Boulder, USA Kwang-Kuo Hwang National Taiwan University, Taiwan Shalom Schwartz The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Zhang Jianxin Chinese Academy of Sciences, People’s Republic of Ted Singelis China California State University, Chico, USA Yoshihisa Kashima Peter Smith The University of Melbourne, Australia University of Sussex, United Kingdom Heidi Keller Sunita Stewart The University of Melbourne, Australia University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, USA Ariel Knafo The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel Eunkook Suh Yonsei University, South Korea Walter Lonner Center for Cross-Culture Research, USA Junko Tanaka-Matsumi Kwansei Gakuin University, Japan Ramesh Mishra York University, Canada Harry Triandis University of Illinois – Urbana-Champaign, USA Noraini Noor International Islamic University, Malaysia Fons van de Vijver Tilburg University, The Netherlands Karen Phalet University of Utrecht, The Netherlands Dianne van Hemert University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Ype Poortinga Tilburg University, The Netherlands Colleen Ward Victoria University of Wellington, Sonia Roccas New Zealand The Open University of Israel, Israel Frank Yates Lilach Sagiv University of Michigan, USA The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel viii CONTRIBUTORS TO THE CAMBRIDGE DICTIONARY OF PSYCHOLOGY Icek Aizen Peter Borkenau University of Massachusetts Martin-Luther University Dolores Albarracin Marc A. Brackett University of Florida Yale University Jeanette Altarriba Laura A. Brannon SUNY – Albany Kansas State University Bob Altemeyer Linda Brannon University of Manitoba McNeese State University Drew A. Anderson Jonathan Brown SUNY – Albany University of Washington Alfredo Ardila Jennifer Bruce Florida International University Purdue University Evelyn W. M. Au Susan Burns University of Illinois – Urbana-Champaign Morning Side College Ozlem N. Ayduk Gustavo Carlo University of California, Berkeley University of Nebraska, Lincoln Amy Badura-Brack Dana R. Carney Creighton University Harvard University Mahzarin R. Banaji David W. Carroll Harvard University University of Wisconsin – Superior Albert Bandura Jose Centeno Stanford University St. John’s University Lisa M. Bauer Edward C. Chang Pepperdine University University of Michigan Veronica Benet-Martinez Rita Chang University of California, Riverside University of Michigan Kathy R. Berenson Shirley Y. Y. Cheng Columbia University University of Illinois – Urbana-Champaign ix Contributors to the Cambridge Dictionary of Psychology Chi Yue Chiu Andrew Elliot University of Illinois – Urbana-Champaign University of Rochester Andrew Christopher Robert A. Emmons Albion College University of California, Davis Austin Timothy Church Erica Fanning Washington State University CUNY Graduate Center Mark Costanzo Eva M. Fernandez Claremont McKenna College City University of New York Thomas S. Critchfi eld Steve Franconeri Illinois State University University of British Columbia Frances Daniel David Gard University of Illinois, Chicago San Francisco State University Sharon Danoff-Burg Michele Gelfand SUNY – Albany University of Maryland Mark Dechesne Jennifer L. Gianico University of Maryland SUNY – Albany Filip De Fruyt Howard Giles Ghent University University of California, Santa Barbara Ken DeMarree Anna Gladkova Texas Tech University Australian National University Nicholas DiFonzo Normaris Gonzalez-Miller Rochester Institute of Technology New York Medical College Kristen A. Diliberto-Macaluso Donald Graves Berry College SUNY – Albany Dale Dinnel William Graziano Western Washington University Purdue University Stephen Dollinger Jeffrey Greenberg Southern Illinois University University of Arizona G. William Domhoff Maria Rosario T. De Guzman University of California, Santa Cruz University of Nebraska, Lincoln Christina A. Downey Curtis Hardin University of Michigan Brooklyn College Geraldine Downey Sam A. Hardy Columbia University University of Virginia x Contributors to the Cambridge Dictionary of Psychology Trevor A. Harley Arie Kruglanski Dundee University University of Maryland Rachel Hayes John Kurtz University of Nebraska, Lincoln Villanova University Marlone D. Henderson Nicole Landi University of Chicago Haskins Laboratories E. Tory Higgins Ellen Langer Columbia University Harvard University Allyson L. Holbrook Jennifer Langhinrichsen-Rohling University of Illinois – Chicago University of South Alabama Ying-yi Hong Heidi Lary University of Illinois – Urbana-Champaign Stony Brook University Tim Johnson Patrick R. Laughlin University of Illinois – Chicago University of Illinois – Urbana-Champaign John T. Jost Greg Lehne New York University Johns Hopkins Medical Center Janice M. Juraska Hong Li University of Illinois – Urbana-Champaign University of Florida Lee Jussim Elizabeth F. Loftus Rutgers University University of California, Irvine Todd Kahan Kevin MacDonald Bates College California State University, Long Beach Yoshi Kashima David MacKinnon University of Melbourne Arizona State University Anatoliy V. Kharkhurin B. Jean Mandernach American University of Sharjah Park University John F. Kihlstrom Viorica Marian University of California, Berkeley Northwestern University Young-Hoon Kim Todd Jason McCallum University of Illinois – Urbana-Champaign Case Western Reserve University Suzanne Kirschner Michael McCaslin College of the Holy Cross Ohio State University Jason W. Kisling Robert R. McCrae Sun Lake Shimane Prefecture Youth Center, Japan National Institute on Aging xi