The Bush Is Sweet: Globalization, Identity and Power Among WoDaaBe Fulani in Niger

264 Pages·2008·17.235 MB·English

by  Kristin Loftsdóttir

inlagathebush:Bok ”The bush is sweet” 08-10-15 11.11 Sida 1 inlagathebush:Bok ”The bush is sweet” 08-10-15 11.11 Sida 1
THE BUSH IS SWEET THE BUSH IS SWEET
Identity,PowerandDevelopment Identity,PowerandDevelopment
amongWoDaaBeFulaniinNiger amongWoDaaBeFulaniinNiger
KRISTÍNLOFTSDÓTTIR KRISTÍNLOFTSDÓTTIR
NORDISKAAFRIKAINSTITUTET,UPPSALA2008 NORDISKAAFRIKAINSTITUTET,UPPSALA2008
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Indexingterms: Indexingterms:
Ethnicgroups Ethnicgroups
Pastoralists Pastoralists
Culturalidentity Culturalidentity
Ethnicity Ethnicity
Traditionalculture Traditionalculture
Socialchange Socialchange
Socialandculturalanthropology Socialandculturalanthropology
Fula Fula
Niger Niger
Photos:KristínLoftsdóttir Photos:KristínLoftsdóttir
Maps:Gu∂mundurÓ.Ingvarsson Maps:Gu∂mundurÓ.Ingvarsson
Languagechecking:ElaineAlmén Languagechecking:ElaineAlmén
Index:RohanBolton Index:RohanBolton
Layout:ilografiskform Layout:ilografiskform
ISBN978-91-7106-617-6 ISBN978-91-7106-617-6
©TheauthorandNordiskaAfrikainstitutet2008 ©TheauthorandNordiskaAfrikainstitutet2008
PrintedinSwedenbyGMLPrintonDemandAB,Stockholm2008 PrintedinSwedenbyGMLPrintonDemandAB,Stockholm2008
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CONTENTS CONTENTS
ACKOWLEDGEMENTS 7 ACKOWLEDGEMENTS 7
INTRODUCTION 9 INTRODUCTION 9
WoDaaBe 11 WoDaaBe 11
Ethnographer 14 Ethnographer 14
DoingFieldwork 15 DoingFieldwork 15
TheoreticalInfluences 16 TheoreticalInfluences 16
OrganizationoftheBook 22 OrganizationoftheBook 22
CHAPTER1:THEEVERCHANGINGWORLD 24 CHAPTER1:THEEVERCHANGINGWORLD 24
CreatingtheDevelopingWorld 27 CreatingtheDevelopingWorld 27
PastoralPeopleandDevelopment 30 PastoralPeopleandDevelopment 30
NigerandDevelopment 33 NigerandDevelopment 33
TheImportanceofLand 37 TheImportanceofLand 37
InConclusion 40 InConclusion 40
CHAPTER2:AGLOBALWORLDOFIMAGES 42 CHAPTER2:AGLOBALWORLDOFIMAGES 42
CategorizingtheWorld 43 CategorizingtheWorld 43
RepresentationsofIndigenousPeople 46 RepresentationsofIndigenousPeople 46
ImaginingtheFulani 48 ImaginingtheFulani 48
InConclusion 55 InConclusion 55
CHAPTER3:ATHOMEINTHEBUSH 57 CHAPTER3:ATHOMEINTHEBUSH 57
TheEcologyoftheBush 59 TheEcologyoftheBush 59
WoDaaBeHomes 61 WoDaaBeHomes 61
LivinginaWuro 63 LivinginaWuro 63
CHAPTER4:ANIMALSINWODAABEECONOMICANDSOCIALLIFE 67 CHAPTER4:ANIMALSINWODAABEECONOMICANDSOCIALLIFE 67
Djelgul,theSymbolofOwnership 69 Djelgul,theSymbolofOwnership 69
TheAffectionforandEconomicsofCows 71 TheAffectionforandEconomicsofCows 71
SocialLifeandLivestock 72 SocialLifeandLivestock 72
CHAPTER5:THECOLDANDTHEHOTSEASON 75 CHAPTER5:THECOLDANDTHEHOTSEASON 75
ALettertoaPlaceFarAway 87 ALettertoaPlaceFarAway 87
CHAPTER6:WODAABEETHNICIDENTITY 90 CHAPTER6:WODAABEETHNICIDENTITY 90
Mbodagansi 92 Mbodagansi 92
TodayandthePast:TheCouncilofElders 98 TodayandthePast:TheCouncilofElders 98
CHAPTER7:GENDERANDPOWER 101 CHAPTER7:GENDERANDPOWER 101
ConstructionofGender 102 ConstructionofGender 102
GenderRelations 103 GenderRelations 103
TegalMarriageandtheLineage 106 TegalMarriageandtheLineage 106
TheBoofiiDo 108 TheBoofiiDo 108
ResistanceandAgency 111 ResistanceandAgency 111
CHAPTER8:THERAINSTARTSTOFALL 114 CHAPTER8:THERAINSTARTSTOFALL 114
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CHAPTER9:THEBORDERTOWN 129 CHAPTER9:THEBORDERTOWN 129
CHAPTER10:WORKINGINTHECITY 137 CHAPTER10:WORKINGINTHECITY 137
MigrantWorkinthePast 141 MigrantWorkinthePast 141
MigrantWorkToday 143 MigrantWorkToday 143
RelationswiththeBush 146 RelationswiththeBush 146
CHAPTER11:THEMAKERSOFHANDICRAFTS 149 CHAPTER11:THEMAKERSOFHANDICRAFTS 149
ShameandSurvival 154 ShameandSurvival 154
EthnicRelationsinNiamey 156 EthnicRelationsinNiamey 156
CHAPTER12:JUMARE’SACCIDENT 160 CHAPTER12:JUMARE’SACCIDENT 160
CHAPTER13:GENDEREDLIVES 167 CHAPTER13:GENDEREDLIVES 167
WorkingintheCity 170 WorkingintheCity 170
CHAPTER14:DANCINGINNIAMEY 178 CHAPTER14:DANCINGINNIAMEY 178
GoingtotheDance 179 GoingtotheDance 179
ClassificationofDancePermancesamongtheWoDaaBe 184 ClassificationofDancePermancesamongtheWoDaaBe 184
DiversityandFractionswithinUnity 185 DiversityandFractionswithinUnity 185
CHAPTER15:DESIREANDIDENTITY 191 CHAPTER15:DESIREANDIDENTITY 191
TheDances 192 TheDances 192
CHAPTER16:LIVEDRELATIONS 200 CHAPTER16:LIVEDRELATIONS 200
WoDaaBeAgency 202 WoDaaBeAgency 202
WoDaaBeandDevelopment 203 WoDaaBeandDevelopment 203
TheHandicraftWork 207 TheHandicraftWork 207
RelationsofPower 208 RelationsofPower 208
DesiresandPower 211 DesiresandPower 211
CHAPTER17:DEVELOPMENTANDIDENTITY:CREATINGSUBJECTS 214 CHAPTER17:DEVELOPMENTANDIDENTITY:CREATINGSUBJECTS 214
CreatingtheWoDaaBeSubject 215 CreatingtheWoDaaBeSubject 215
CONCLUDINGREMARKS 222 CONCLUDINGREMARKS 222
APPENDIXI 227 APPENDIXI 227
TransformingExperienceintoaText 227 TransformingExperienceintoaText 227
APPENDIXII 232 APPENDIXII 232
Intersubjectivity 232 Intersubjectivity 232
APPENDIXIII 234 APPENDIXIII 234
EarlierResearchonWoDaaBe 234 EarlierResearchonWoDaaBe 234
References 236 References 236
Index 258 Index 258
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WoDaaBemainlineageorganizationasseenfromGojanko’enindividuals WoDaaBemainlineageorganizationasseenfromGojanko’enindividuals
UnknownAncestor UnknownAncestor
1stdivision Degi(Degire’wul) Ali(Alidjam) 1stdivision Degi(Degire’wul) Ali(Alidjam)
2nddivision Gojanko’en) Njapto’en Njapto’en Djiidjiiru 2nddivision Gojanko’en) Njapto’en Njapto’en Djiidjiiru
3rddivision Utei Gaa’anko’en Godje(Gadjagiiru) 3rddivision Utei Gaa’anko’en Godje(Gadjagiiru)
Majorresearchareas Majorresearchareas
TheAderarea TheAderarea
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GLOSSARY GLOSSARY
Anasara whiteperson,personfromtheWest,aChristian. Anasara whiteperson,personfromtheWest,aChristian.
ArDo thelineagechief. ArDo thelineagechief.
Dabbunde thetimeoftheseasonwhenitiscoldand,windyandwithregular Dabbunde thetimeoftheseasonwhenitiscoldand,windyandwithregular
sandstorms. sandstorms.
DuDal thecattlecoral. Itismadeduringtherainyseasonbylightingafire DuDal thecattlecoral. Itismadeduringtherainyseasonbylightingafire
forthecattletofreethemfromthemosquitoes. forthecattletofreethemfromthemosquitoes.
BoofiiDo awomaenbecomesaboofiiDobofidowhenpregnantwiththeir BoofiiDo awomaenbecomesaboofiiDobofidowhenpregnantwiththeir
herfirstchildandisstilldefinedasboofiiDobofidotwoorthree herfirstchildandisstilldefinedasboofiiDobofidotwoorthree
yearsaftergivingbirthtothechild. yearsaftergivingbirthtothechild.
CeeDu thehotseason. CeeDu thehotseason.
Gonsul aAgeneraltermovermigrationmovements. Gonsul aAgeneraltermovermigrationmovements.
HaBBanaaji cattleloans. HaBBanaaji cattleloans.
Yaawol aseasonofprosperityandpleasure. Yaawol aseasonofprosperityandpleasure.
KooBgal Marriagewithinthelineage. The parentsorganizethistypeof KooBgal Marriagewithinthelineage. The parentsorganizethistypeof
marriagefortheirchildrenusuallywhenthechildrenareyoung. marriagefortheirchildrenusuallywhenthechildrenareyoung.
KoDei desire,greed. KoDei desire,greed.
Kokke Thetimeoftheseasonwhenthefirstrainstartstofall. Kokke Thetimeoftheseasonwhenthefirstrainstartstofall.
LaamiiDo thehighestindigenousauthorityoftheWoDaaBe. LaamiiDo thehighestindigenousauthorityoftheWoDaaBe.
AlaamiiDocanbeanauthorityoverseverallineages. AlaamiiDocanbeanauthorityoverseverallineages.
Thechiefs(ardo)ofdifferentWoDaaBelineageshavetoreportto Thechiefs(ardo)ofdifferentWoDaaBelineageshavetoreportto
thelaamiiDo. thelaamiiDo.
Mbodagansi acoreconceptincharacterizingWoDaaBeidentity,embracing Mbodagansi acoreconceptincharacterizingWoDaaBeidentity,embracing
variousaspectsofwhatitmeanstobeWoDaaBe. variousaspectsofwhatitmeanstobeWoDaaBe.
Munyal patience,tolerance,oneofthemajorcharacteristicsthat Munyal patience,tolerance,oneofthemajorcharacteristicsthat
theWoDaaBevalueandseeascharacterizingthemselves. theWoDaaBevalueandseeascharacterizingthemselves.
Ndunngu timeoftheseasontheseasonwhenthereisalotofgrass. Ndunngu timeoftheseasontheseasonwhenthereisalotofgrass.
Pulaaku acoreconceptincharacterizingtheFulaniidentity,referringto Pulaaku acoreconceptincharacterizingtheFulaniidentity,referringto
moralvirtuesandbehaviour. moralvirtuesandbehaviour.
Semaru apersonwithwhomoneisengagedinasexualrelationship. Semaru apersonwithwhomoneisengagedinasexualrelationship.
WoDaaBecannotgenerallymarrytheirsemaru,whichwhoare WoDaaBecannotgenerallymarrytheirsemaru,whichwhoare
usuallyfoundwithinthesamelineagegroup. usuallyfoundwithinthesamelineagegroup.
SemtuDum shame,respect,oneofthecharacteristicsthattheWoDaaBevalue SemtuDum shame,respect,oneofthecharacteristicsthattheWoDaaBevalue
greatlyandseeascharacterizingthemselves. greatlyandseeascharacterizingthemselves.
Si’ire town. Si’ire town.
Surbaajo girl,youngwoman. Surbaajo girl,youngwoman.
Suudu house-unitsconstitutingtheWoDaaBewuroorhome. Suudu house-unitsconstitutingtheWoDaaBewuroorhome.
(pl.cuuDi) (pl.cuuDi)
Teegal marriagebetweenpeoplefromdifferentlineagesorlineage Teegal marriagebetweenpeoplefromdifferentlineagesorlineage
fractions. Itisforbiddenbetweenmembersofthesamelineage. fractions. Itisforbiddenbetweenmembersofthesamelineage.
Wuro atermoverforhouse,hut,village,ortown.AWoDaaBewurois Wuro atermoverforhouse,hut,village,ortown.AWoDaaBewurois
(pl.gure) composedbyofseveralsmallerunitscalledcuudi(sing.suudu). (pl.gure) composedbyofseveralsmallerunitscalledcuudi(sing.suudu).
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Iwouldliketothankallthosewhohelpedandtookcareofmeduringmy Iwouldliketothankallthosewhohelpedandtookcareofmeduringmy
researchandwhopatientlytoleratedmylimitationsduringmyfieldworkin researchandwhopatientlytoleratedmylimitationsduringmyfieldworkin
Niger.Especially,IwanttothankthepeopleintheGojanko’enlineagegroup Niger.Especially,IwanttothankthepeopleintheGojanko’enlineagegroup
Istayedwithmost.ToGaa’i,Ganjado,Girgi,Ibanou,Dro,Mawde,Ganay’i, Istayedwithmost.ToGaa’i,Ganjado,Girgi,Ibanou,Dro,Mawde,Ganay’i,
Tumbido,Budjo,Baya,Madika,Dembeandmanyotherswhogenerously Tumbido,Budjo,Baya,Madika,Dembeandmanyotherswhogenerously
gavemetheirtimeandmoreimportantly,apartofthemselves,Iwanttosay: gavemetheirtimeandmoreimportantly,apartofthemselves,Iwanttosay:
Miyetti,miyettigoregoregore,wanadumseda.Miyettiaminaon’on.Allahwadan Miyetti,miyettigoregoregore,wanadumseda.Miyettiaminaon’on.Allahwadan
barki(Ithankyou,Ithankyousomuchforyourfriendship.MayGodhelp barki(Ithankyou,Ithankyousomuchforyourfriendship.MayGodhelp
you).InNiger,Imetkindnessandassistancefromvariousotherindividuals. you).InNiger,Imetkindnessandassistancefromvariousotherindividuals.
IwantespeciallytomentionIdrissaYansambou,DirecteurdesArchivesNa- IwantespeciallytomentionIdrissaYansambou,DirecteurdesArchivesNa-
tionalesNiamey;MoussaAbdouAkodaatPrefectureTahoua,M.Bagoudou tionalesNiamey;MoussaAbdouAkodaatPrefectureTahoua,M.Bagoudou
Maidaji at the Ministry of Herding and Agriculture, Maïkorema Zakari, Maidaji at the Ministry of Herding and Agriculture, Maïkorema Zakari,
Directeur de l’IRSH (Institut de Recherche en Sciences Humaines); Gambo Directeur de l’IRSH (Institut de Recherche en Sciences Humaines); Gambo
Boukary,MaidajiMaiguida,MadameIdrissaneéSalmouSalifouseatIRSH, Boukary,MaidajiMaiguida,MadameIdrissaneéSalmouSalifouseatIRSH,
aswellasotherindividualsconnectedtotheseabovementionedinstitutions. aswellasotherindividualsconnectedtotheseabovementionedinstitutions.
Also,IwouldliketothankSerhirouBoubacar,BillPhelan,BoubacarHas- Also,IwouldliketothankSerhirouBoubacar,BillPhelan,BoubacarHas-
sane,RaquelChristinedeSousa,KeithE.Syler,Basonka,BobWinterbot- sane,RaquelChristinedeSousa,KeithE.Syler,Basonka,BobWinterbot-
tom,LisbetHoltedahl,MahmoudouDjinguiandThomasPainterwhoindif- tom,LisbetHoltedahl,MahmoudouDjinguiandThomasPainterwhoindif-
ferentwaysgaveassistanceoradvicetothedissertationresearch. ferentwaysgaveassistanceoradvicetothedissertationresearch.
Mygratitudealsogoestootherswhowerecrucialtothisprojectinamore Mygratitudealsogoestootherswhowerecrucialtothisprojectinamore
indirectway,myhusbandandbetterhalf,MárWolfgangMixa,whohelped indirectway,myhusbandandbetterhalf,MárWolfgangMixa,whohelped
me through this long journey with patience and love; my parents, Loftur me through this long journey with patience and love; my parents, Loftur
MagnússonandErlaG.Sigurðardóttirfortheirsupportandenthusiasmfor MagnússonandErlaG.Sigurðardóttirfortheirsupportandenthusiasmfor
theresearchaswellforprovidingendlesshoursofbaby-sittingofmythree theresearchaswellforprovidingendlesshoursofbaby-sittingofmythree
smallchildrenduringthewritingofthisbook.Mythanksextendaswellto smallchildrenduringthewritingofthisbook.Mythanksextendaswellto
mysiblings,Ásta,JónínaDöggandMagnús,andotherfamilymemberswho mysiblings,Ásta,JónínaDöggandMagnús,andotherfamilymemberswho
wrotetomeduringfieldworktimeandkeptmeapartoftheirlivesduring wrotetomeduringfieldworktimeandkeptmeapartoftheirlivesduring
mylongabsencefromIceland.Ialsowanttothankmyfriend,ÁrniVíkingur mylongabsencefromIceland.Ialsowanttothankmyfriend,ÁrniVíkingur
Sveinsson,whoassistedwithbringingthisworktolifefromitsbeginning. Sveinsson,whoassistedwithbringingthisworktolifefromitsbeginning.
7 7
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My students at the University of Iceland, Helga Björnsdóttir and Jo Tore My students at the University of Iceland, Helga Björnsdóttir and Jo Tore
Berg,werepersistentinencouragingmetopublishthisbook,andIwishto Berg,werepersistentinencouragingmetopublishthisbook,andIwishto
thankJoforcriticalcommentsthathemadeonthemanuscript. thankJoforcriticalcommentsthathemadeonthemanuscript.
Thebookisbasedonmydissertation(2000)whichIdefendedattheUni- Thebookisbasedonmydissertation(2000)whichIdefendedattheUni-
versity of Arizona in the fall of 1999. To my mentors, Thomas K. Park, versity of Arizona in the fall of 1999. To my mentors, Thomas K. Park,
RichardHenderson,HelenHenderson,AnaMaríaAlonsoandHermannK. RichardHenderson,HelenHenderson,AnaMaríaAlonsoandHermannK.
Bleibtreu,Iwanttoexpressgratitudeforvariouskindsofassistanceinrela- Bleibtreu,Iwanttoexpressgratitudeforvariouskindsofassistanceinrela-
tiontomyresearch,criticalcommentsandencouragement.RichardHen- tiontomyresearch,criticalcommentsandencouragement.RichardHen-
dersonandHelenHendersonalsoopenedtheirhomestomeandlatertomy dersonandHelenHendersonalsoopenedtheirhomestomeandlatertomy
family, providing shelter, love and support from my first day in Tucson. family, providing shelter, love and support from my first day in Tucson.
ThomasK.Park,mymainadvisor,providedextensivesupportandchallenges ThomasK.Park,mymainadvisor,providedextensivesupportandchallenges
for me during my student years, encouraging me to continue my studies, for me during my student years, encouraging me to continue my studies,
neverquestioningmyabilities. neverquestioningmyabilities.
TheethnographicresearchconductedinNigerfromAugust1996untilthe TheethnographicresearchconductedinNigerfromAugust1996untilthe
endofJune1998,wasmadepossiblewithfundingfromtheNordicAfricaIn- endofJune1998,wasmadepossiblewithfundingfromtheNordicAfricaIn-
stituteandRotaryInternational.FundingfromtheJónÞórarinssonEduca- stituteandRotaryInternational.FundingfromtheJónÞórarinssonEduca-
tionalFund,givenbyFlensborgCollegemadeexploratoryresearchinNiger tionalFund,givenbyFlensborgCollegemadeexploratoryresearchinNiger
in1996possible.Iamverygratefultotheseinstitutionsforgivingmetheop- in1996possible.Iamverygratefultotheseinstitutionsforgivingmetheop-
portunitytoconductthisresearch.Furthermore,Ireceivedscholarshipsfrom portunitytoconductthisresearch.Furthermore,Ireceivedscholarshipsfrom
theNordicAfricaInstitutetostaythereasastudentandthenlaterasaguest theNordicAfricaInstitutetostaythereasastudentandthenlaterasaguest
researcherwhenwritingupresultsandanalyzingthedata,benefitingfrom researcherwhenwritingupresultsandanalyzingthedata,benefitingfrom
kindadvice,stimulatingdiscussionswithvariousindividualsassociatedwith kindadvice,stimulatingdiscussionswithvariousindividualsassociatedwith
the Institute who are too numerous to be mentioned but include Mette the Institute who are too numerous to be mentioned but include Mette
Bovin,HarriEnglund,EbrimaSallandBawaYamba.Ialsowanttomention Bovin,HarriEnglund,EbrimaSallandBawaYamba.Ialsowanttomention
thegenerousassistancethatIhavereceivedovertheyearsinregardtovari- thegenerousassistancethatIhavereceivedovertheyearsinregardtovari-
ousissuesfromKarinAnderssonSchiebe,NinaFrödinandSusanneLinderos ousissuesfromKarinAnderssonSchiebe,NinaFrödinandSusanneLinderos
attheNordicAfricaInstitute. attheNordicAfricaInstitute.
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INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
Iamthewhiteanthropologist.AtthismomentthatiswhoIam.Awhiteper- Iamthewhiteanthropologist.AtthismomentthatiswhoIam.Awhiteper-
sonwithapeninmyhand,papersinmylap,inanambiguouspowerrela- sonwithapeninmyhand,papersinmylap,inanambiguouspowerrela-
tionshipwiththoseIamworkingwith.Myassistant,Akali,isafraidtojoin tionshipwiththoseIamworkingwith.Myassistant,Akali,isafraidtojoin
thegroupIamtalkingtobecausehealsostandsinaspecificpowerrelation- thegroupIamtalkingtobecausehealsostandsinaspecificpowerrelation-
shipwiththeseindividuals.Theyareagroupofelderlymen.Heisyoung; shipwiththeseindividuals.Theyareagroupofelderlymen.Heisyoung;
theyareold.Powerisnolessapartofhislifethanitisofmine. theyareold.Powerisnolessapartofhislifethanitisofmine.
Ifeelshy;perhapsIhavestartedtoabsorbtheWoDaaBe1senseofshame Ifeelshy;perhapsIhavestartedtoabsorbtheWoDaaBe1senseofshame
incrossingboundariesofageandgender.Themenaresittingbeneathaclus- incrossingboundariesofageandgender.Themenaresittingbeneathaclus-
teroftrees.Itislateintheday,thesunstillhighinthesky.Thesemenare teroftrees.Itislateintheday,thesunstillhighinthesky.Thesemenare
approachingthelaterstagesoftheirlives,theyoungestbeingKala’i,whoI approachingthelaterstagesoftheirlives,theyoungestbeingKala’i,whoI
guessisinhisearlyseventies.Theothersaremucholder.Oneofthemen, guessisinhisearlyseventies.Theothersaremucholder.Oneofthemen,
whomIcallArdo,isachief.TwoofthemenIdonotknowverywell,thefifth whomIcallArdo,isachief.TwoofthemenIdonotknowverywell,thefifth
isfromanotherlineagegroup.Isitinthecornerofthestrawmat,havingbeen isfromanotherlineagegroup.Isitinthecornerofthestrawmat,havingbeen
givenpermissiontojointhemandtalk.Theissueswearediscussingconcern givenpermissiontojointhemandtalk.Theissueswearediscussingconcern
power,thelackofpowerandtheidentityoftheWoDaaBeasagroup.We power,thelackofpowerandtheidentityoftheWoDaaBeasagroup.We
havediscussedtheseissuesmanytimesbefore–thelackofrain,theinsecuri- havediscussedtheseissuesmanytimesbefore–thelackofrain,theinsecuri-
tyofthearea,theleavingofyoungpeopletogoandsearchforworkinthe tyofthearea,theleavingofyoungpeopletogoandsearchforworkinthe
city.Theyarerelevantnowasalways,anewyearisstartingandeveryonefears city.Theyarerelevantnowasalways,anewyearisstartingandeveryonefears
itwillbemoredifficultthanthispassingyear.Theraincamelateandsome itwillbemoredifficultthanthispassingyear.Theraincamelateandsome
lostanumberoftheirfewanimals.Whatwillthenextyearbring?These lostanumberoftheirfewanimals.Whatwillthenextyearbring?These
problemsandissuesstrikeattheheartofwhatitmeanstobeaWoDaaBe, problemsandissuesstrikeattheheartofwhatitmeanstobeaWoDaaBe,
thedesiretoexistasagroup,tobeengagedinherding. thedesiretoexistasagroup,tobeengagedinherding.
Ardoisspeaking,“Whatwewantisprosperityforourarea,wewantpros- Ardoisspeaking,“Whatwewantisprosperityforourarea,wewantpros-
perityandpeace.Ifitrains,wewillprosper.Ifitrainswewillgainwellbeing. perityandpeace.Ifitrains,wewillprosper.Ifitrainswewillgainwellbeing.
1IntranscriptionIhavetriedtofollowtherecommendationsmadebytheexpertsoftheCongressforthe 1IntranscriptionIhavetriedtofollowtherecommendationsmadebytheexpertsoftheCongressforthe
UnificationofAlphabetsoftheNationalLanguagesofWestAfricain1966,organizedbyUNESCO.Thecapi- UnificationofAlphabetsoftheNationalLanguagesofWestAfricain1966,organizedbyUNESCO.Thecapi-
talizedBandDrefertotheglottalizedorinjectiveconsonantsintheFulfuldelanguage(seePelletierand talizedBandDrefertotheglottalizedorinjectiveconsonantsintheFulfuldelanguage(seePelletierand
Skinner1981:3).Riesmancallsthesesounds“injective”consonants(Riesman1977:xxi).Theglottalstopis Skinner1981:3).Riesmancallsthesesounds“injective”consonants(Riesman1977:xxi).Theglottalstopis
indicatedbyanapostrophe. indicatedbyanapostrophe.
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INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
Wewillherdouranimals,wewilllivewiththebushwithouranimals.Butifit Wewillherdouranimals,wewilllivewiththebushwithouranimals.Butifit
doesnotrain,wewillnotgainprosperity.Thenallkindsofproblemswillarise.” doesnotrain,wewillnotgainprosperity.Thenallkindsofproblemswillarise.”
Anothermansays,“Ihavenomillet,nomilkingcows,nowelltofetchwater.” Anothermansays,“Ihavenomillet,nomilkingcows,nowelltofetchwater.”
Thereissilence.ThenArdospeaksagainfirmlybutgently.“Whatwewant Thereissilence.ThenArdospeaksagainfirmlybutgently.“Whatwewant
nowishelp,assistance.Helpwithgettingpeaceinthisarea,withwaterand nowishelp,assistance.Helpwithgettingpeaceinthisarea,withwaterand
animals.MayGodshowmethedaywhenwegetthis.” animals.MayGodshowmethedaywhenwegetthis.”
Kala’iturnstowardsmesmiling,askingmetofindhimawelltogivehisan- Kala’iturnstowardsmesmiling,askingmetofindhimawelltogivehisan-
imalswatersohedoesnothavetoretreattothecity.“Peopleofthecitydonot imalswatersohedoesnothavetoretreattothecity.“Peopleofthecitydonot
migrate,mycowswouldsufferfromhunger.”Heisteasingwhenhespeaksof migrate,mycowswouldsufferfromhunger.”Heisteasingwhenhespeaksof
hisretreattothecity,becausehehasalwaysbeenaherder.Hisvoicecarriesthe hisretreattothecity,becausehehasalwaysbeenaherder.Hisvoicecarriesthe
passionhehasforhiscows.Hehastoldmemanytimeshowimportanttheyare passionhehasforhiscows.Hehastoldmemanytimeshowimportanttheyare
forhimandhisfamily,fortheWoDaaBe.Heistheonewhohastaughtmea forhimandhisfamily,fortheWoDaaBe.Heistheonewhohastaughtmea
simpletruth:thatthewell-beingofanimalsensuresthewell-beingofpeople. simpletruth:thatthewell-beingofanimalsensuresthewell-beingofpeople.
Ihaveseentheproblemstheyarediscussing.IcametoNigertofindout Ihaveseentheproblemstheyarediscussing.IcametoNigertofindout
whethertheWoDaaBeweresomethingotherthanthepaintedpeopleliving whethertheWoDaaBeweresomethingotherthanthepaintedpeopleliving
inharmonyandpeaceIhadobservedpreviouslyinthepopularpress.What inharmonyandpeaceIhadobservedpreviouslyinthepopularpress.What
Iencounteredwasdesperation,fearoflosingone’scows,waitingforrainand Iencounteredwasdesperation,fearoflosingone’scows,waitingforrainand
thefrustrationthateveryyearseemstobringtoolittlerain.Theirlivesare, thefrustrationthateveryyearseemstobringtoolittlerain.Theirlivesare,
however,notsimplyastruggleforbasicsurvival,butembodyallspectraof however,notsimplyastruggleforbasicsurvival,butembodyallspectraof
humancreativity,dynamicsandinteractionsofpower. humancreativity,dynamicsandinteractionsofpower.
Theconstantinterplaysofpowerthatarepartofmyeverydayexistence, Theconstantinterplaysofpowerthatarepartofmyeverydayexistence,
probablystimulatedmyinterestinanalyzingpowerasitoperatesinthemany probablystimulatedmyinterestinanalyzingpowerasitoperatesinthemany
phasesofWoDaaBelives.Powerbecameimportantasaresearchtopicbe- phasesofWoDaaBelives.Powerbecameimportantasaresearchtopicbe-
causeitwassorelevantinmyrelationshipsthereand,obviously,alsointheir causeitwassorelevantinmyrelationshipsthereand,obviously,alsointheir
lives.Myinterestgrewaroundthehistoricalreasonsforthepowerlessness lives.Myinterestgrewaroundthehistoricalreasonsforthepowerlessness
thattheWoDaaBefindthemselvesintoday,aswellasWoDaaBeidentityin thattheWoDaaBefindthemselvesintoday,aswellasWoDaaBeidentityin
aworldofdevelopmentandglobalization. aworldofdevelopmentandglobalization.
IthinkofwordsthatweresaidtomeinthecityNiamey,whererulescan IthinkofwordsthatweresaidtomeinthecityNiamey,whererulescan
bebentmoreeasilythaninthebush.Thesewordswerespokeninangerand bebentmoreeasilythaninthebush.Thesewordswerespokeninangerand
frustrationatexactlythesamesituationthatthesemenarediscussinghere. frustrationatexactlythesamesituationthatthesemenarediscussinghere.
YoushouldnotforgetthatIamsomeone,thatIamsomebody.Mylifeisperhaps YoushouldnotforgetthatIamsomeone,thatIamsomebody.Mylifeisperhaps
notveryfine,Ineverwenttoschool,Iamablackman,Idonotownanything;Ire- notveryfine,Ineverwenttoschool,Iamablackman,Idonotownanything;Ire-
alizethatIdon’tknowanythinglikeyourpeople,butIamstillsomeone.Youshould alizethatIdon’tknowanythinglikeyourpeople,butIamstillsomeone.Youshould
rememberthatIamsomebodyjustlikeyou.Justasyou,IhavesomethingsthatI rememberthatIamsomebodyjustlikeyou.Justasyou,IhavesomethingsthatI
loveandsomethingsIdon’tlike(frommypersonalnotebook). loveandsomethingsIdon’tlike(frommypersonalnotebook).
10 10