The Biblical Archaeologist - Vol.57, N.1 issue 1

68 Pages·1994·31.46 MB·English

by  American Schools of Oriental Research

BiblicAal rchaeologist
Perspectiveosn the AncientW orldf romM esopotamitao the Mediterranean Vol.57 No.1 March1 994
i~Br~~i~il
...>3:...
(. . :
(cid:127)..~~n~
4
(cid:127)er(cid:127);b(cid:127)2
BiblicaAl rchaeologist
Perspectiveosn theA ncienWt orldfr omM esopotamitao theM editerranean Volum5e 7 Number1
A Publicatioonf theA mericanS choolso f OrientaRl esearch March1 994
2
Inscriptions
Phoenician
Donald R. Vance
Mediterraneacni vilizationw ould hardlyb e the same withoutt he mon-
umentalc ontributionos f the PhoeniciansA. mong theirl egacya ret hou-
sandso f inscriptions--carveidn stone,s cratchedin ceramicsi,n scribedo n
metala nd ivory,a nd pennedw ith ink. Theser ecordsd etailt he culture
and historyo f theirr enownedL evantinec ities--ByblosS, idon,T yre,a nd
others--fromw hichP hcenicianin fluenceo n Mediterraneaanr t,r eligion,
and commerces pread.
20
The "Libation Installations" of the Tombs at Ugarit
Wayne T Pitard
Did the ancientS yriani nhabitantos f Ugarit" feed"t heird ead afteri nter-
ment?O vers ix decadesa fterC laudeS chaefferb eganh is grande xcava-
tionso f thisL ateB ronzeA ge metropolisa nd port,h is interpretationosf its
page 2
tombsc ontinuet o offer" libationin stallationsa"n d otherf unerarya ccou-
trementst o the unwary.B ut the archaeologicadla tan o longers upport
Schaeffer'ssu ppositionrse gardinga n activec ulto f thed ead.I t'st imet o lay
the funeraryin stallationas t Ugaritt o rest.
38 A Medieval Church in Mesopotamia
Michael and Neathery Fuller
Theu nmistakablae rchitecturoef a SyrianC hristianc hurchs urprisedt he
excavatorso f Tuneinira, site of manyr uinsi n northeasterSny ria. Finds
includinga breadm old and stainso n the church'sp lasterf loorp roduced
by drippingc handelierrse -animatteh e lifeo f thism edievalp laceo f wor-
ship.P aintedp lasterl intelsr ecapturteh e colora nd beautyo f thisu ncom-
mon mud-brickc hurch.
page 20 46 The Minoan Origin of Tyrian Purple
Robert R. Stieglitz
Tyrianp urplew as the most expensived ye in the ancientw orld.M anu-
facturedfr omt hes ecretionosf specieso f theM editerraneamno lluskM urex,
thed iscoverya nd distributioonf "royapl urple"a rec ommonlyc reditedto
the PhoeniciansY. eta rchaeologicaaln d epigraphicd ataf romt he Aegean
suggestt hatt he "royapl urple"in dustryf irstd evelopedo n CreteB. efore
1750B CEM, inoanso n Cretea nd someM inoanizedis landerss,u cha s those
on Kytheraw, erea lreadym anufacturinsge a-purpleg,e neratinagn industry
thatt henc aughto n andp rosperedth roughoutth e easternM editerranean.
News, Notes, and Reviews
55 Papyrus Scrollsf rom Petra:A StupendousD iscovery. A cache of scrolls-
flatteneda nd carbonizedb, ut readable-has emergedf romt he Byzantine
Churcha t Petra.A CORi s spearheadinga monumentael ffortt o preserve
this pricelessp apyrusl egacy.
page 38
On the cover: The bust of late tenth century PharaohO sorkon I shoulders a
Phoenciani nscription of Elibaal,k ing of Byblos (@ Photo R.M.N.).I n the back-
ground are drawings of the carved letters of the Phoenciana lphabet from the
fifth century sarcophagus of Sidon's king Eshmunazar.
Fromth eE ditor
Biblical
Archaeologist
Perspectiveosn theA ncienWt orldfr om
pigraphic finds-from ostraca to monumental even Mesopotamitao theM editerranean
inscriptions-exhilarate
E the richest of archaeological projects. BA takes great delight in offering a Editor David C. Hopkins
first glimpse at the stupendous discovery at Petra of a cache of damaged but Art Director Robert D. Mench, Top Design
readable papyrus scrolls. This find caps the remarkable excavation of a Byzan- Book Review Editor James C. Moyer
tine basilica and its breathtaking mosaics. Legible scroll fragments have already Editorial Assistant Timothy L. Adamson
suggested ties to known history. When finally unwrapped, the mass of docu- Editorial Committee
ments will doubtless permit a glimpse into Petra's heretofore hidden Byzantine Jeffery A. Blakely Gloria London
Ernest S. Frerichs Jodi Magness
social and economic history, and the sandstone city will be heralded for yet Gerald L. Mattingly Ronald S. Hendel
more than its spectacular cinnamon facades. Richard S. Hess Gaetano Palumbo
The cursive Greek of the Petra papyri owes its existence to the alphabetic Kenneth G. Hoglund Paul Zimansky
tradition preserved in the simplified linear writing of Phcenician inscriptions. Subscriptions Annual subscription rates are
535 for individuals and $45 for institutions.
Scattered by the spread of the Phcenician cities' seafaring cultures across a mil-
There is a special annual rate of $28 for those
lennium and from one shore of the Mediterranean to the other, these inscrip- over 65, physically challenged, or unemployed.
tions offer a primary historical record. Donald Vance explores this record in Biblical is also available as part of
Archacolo(cid:127)gist
the first half of his discerning inventory of Phcenician inscriptions. This issue's the benefits of some ASOR membership cate-
offering focuses on contemporary work on inscriptions found in Phoenicia gnoartiieosn.a Pl oasdtdargees sfeosr Cisa anna daidadni taionnda ol t$h5e.r I i'navte-r -
proper. The second half of Vance's presentation of this inscriptional legacy will ments should be sent to ASOR Membership/
embrace finds from the remainder of the vast Mediterranean basin. Vance's Subscriber Services, P.O. Box 15399, Atlanta,
survey adds an installment to BA'so ngoing interest in the Literary Sources for GA 30333-0399 (ph: 404-727-2345; Bitnet:
SCHOLARS@EMORYUI)V. ISA/Mastercard
the History of Palestine and Syria. Under the general editorship of University of orders can be phoned in.
Chicago Assyriologist Dennis Pardee, this decade-long series has ranged from Back issues Back issues can be obtained by
the Ebla Tablets to Old Aramaic Inscriptions. calling SP Customer Services at 800-437-6692
Besides their role in the origin of the Greek and, thus, the modern west- or writing SP Customer Services, P.O. Box
ern alphabet, the Phoenicians are customarily credited with discovering the 6996, Alpharetta, GA 30239-6996.
purple dye for which their region was justly famous throughout the first mil- APorscthmaeaostloerg istS,A eSnOd Ra dMdermesbs ecrhshanipg/eSsu btos cBriibbleirc al
lennium. But did they? Robert Stieglitz assembles archaeological and epi- Services, P.O.B ox 15399, Atlanta, GA 30333-0399.
graphic data that challenge this item on the Phcenician resum6. Though the Second-class postage paid at Atlanta, GA and
additional offices.
acclaim for the Phcenicians dates back to the Roman era, it is the Minoans
who deserve recognition as the originators of 'royal purple'. COorpieynrtiaglh Rt e?s e1a9rc9h4. b y the American Schools of
Another challenge to a long-tenured archaeological interpretation focuses Correspondence All editorial correspondence
attention north of the Phcenicianc oastal cites to the town and port of Ras Shamra should be addressed to BiblicalA rclhaeologist,
(Ugarit) and into the enigmatic world of funerary ritual. Reconstruction of the 4500 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington,
burial practiceso f Ugarit has long included the component of post-burial "feeding 8D6C0 52)0. 0B1o6o-k56s 9f0o r( prhev: i2e0w2 -s8h8o5u-8ld6 9b9e; fsaexn:t 2 t0o2 -D8r8.5 -
of the dead," based upon the initial archaeological interpretations of the site's James C. Moyer, Department of Religious
excavator, Claude Schaeffer. Under the scrutiny of Wayne Pitard's re-analysis, Studies, Southwest Missouri State University,
the libation installations, altars, and ceiling holes for offerings of Schaeffer's 960518 0S4o-u0t0h9 5N. ational, Box 167, Springfield, MO
imagination tuhno ut to be latrines, gutters, and products of the intrusion of grave Advertising Correspondence should be
robbers. Overturning this evidence for post-funeral care of the deceased has addressed to Sarah Foster, Scholars Press, P0.
crucial consequences for the interpretation of other excavated tombs as well Box 15399, Atlanta, GA 30333-0399 (ph: 404-
727-2325; fax: [phone]). Ads for the sale
as both Ugaritic and biblical literary data on beliefs about the dead. of antiquities will not be accepted.
Distant from the Mediterranean site of Ugarit near the eastern edge of Syria,
Tell Tuneinir offers a beautifully preserved mudbrick church of medieval Syriac- BibrlicaAlr chalriogis(tI SSN( )h006-0)89i5s )p ublished
speaking Christianity. Unexpectedly unearthed by Michael and Neathery bqyu aSrctheorllya (rMs Ia'rrecths,,l8 u1n9e H, Soeupstteomn bMeirl,lD Reocaemd NbEer, )
Fuller, the site's architecturea nd small finds-painted plaster, a bread mold, an Atlanta, GA 30329, for the American Schools of
inscribed brick--wonderfully re-animate the life of this simple holy place. Oriental lesearch (ASOR),3 301 North Charles
StreetB, naltimoreM, D 21218. l'rinted by Cadmus
The excavators of Tell Tuneinir discovered a sanctuary where they had Journal Services, Bal ti more MD.
every reason to suspect fortifications. Their surprise joins the other revelations,
fresh readings, and new proposals in this issue to remind one how quickly
and unpredictably even the ancient world changes. NIS
OF0P
r
JV/to
H#oic'
AwLv~
i,:: (cid:127),:!: 7 : :i!:(cid:127):':(cid:127)'(cid:127) ,: ?. 1o '(cid:127),;-(cid:127) : , .(cid:127):-;(cid:127) ... .... , (cid:127):' (cid:127) (cid:127) - -(cid:127) ,
;
:I ~: :.: :
?:::~i -j:;ic~:i~(cid:127) : :.:(cid:127)(cid:127).:-(cid:127)i'!: :::: !:! (cid:127) :ii""i;:;(cid:127) :--4:1: -:: -! i.(cid:127) H....: !.': : - i(cid:127)::.;: ::(cid:127):
:,?gt(cid:127)9~:i'?:;:-::: :i::-~ ::(cid:127)- -.;:.-:. ':(cid:127)::i: ::(cid:127) "(cid:127)::(cid:127)':;(cid:127)::(cid:127) (cid:127)(cid:127): (cid:127) (cid:127)
Sources for the
Literary
History of Palestine and Syria: : ':
:?:.
low,
The Phlinician
Inscriptions,
Il
Part
Vance
ByDonald R. Vance
>44
Now
Hiramk, ingo f Tyres,e nt early as Homer (112. 3.744-745a nd see
messengers to David, as well Muhly 1970). The Phoeniciane mporia
as cedar logs, carpenters,a nd extended across North Africa and up :?9"1
stonemasons, and they built a palace into Spain.2O ne of these emporia,C arth- t~~i~(cid:127) i!i~iil(cid:127) *(cid:127)l ..' .
,. .... "
for David." (2 Sam 5:11) age, was the major power in the Medi-
"Departingf rom there, Jesus with- terraneanu ntil its defeat by Rome in
drew to the region of Tyre and Sidon." 146 BCE.
(Matt 15:21) The most importantc ontributiono f
These two verses from the Bibleb ear the Phoenicianst o the history of the An-
witness to a relationshipb etween Phoen- cient Near East was the alphabet. The n4"
icia and Israel that spanned at least a r6le that the Phoeniciansp layed in the
millennium. Phoenicianc ities interacted developmento f the alphabeti s complex.3
with nations other than Israel,o f course. According to Herodotus:
The twelfth-dynasty Egyptian story of
Sinuhet ells how this attendantf led Egypt The Phoenicians...introduced into
on the death of his king, Amenemhet I Greece, after their settlement in the 4 (4
(1991-1962 BCE)a,n d made his way to country,a number of accomplish-
Byblos (ANET:18-22).1T he Amamrna ments, of which the most impor- ... .
letters (14th century BCEh) ave profuse tant was the alphabet, which till
-4'. ..
referencest o the Phoenicianc ities of Tyre, then, I think, had been unknown to .
Sidon, and Byblos;i ndeed, seventy-three the Greeks [Hist. V:58].4 . .
of the lettersw ere written either from or
to Byblos (Gubla in the texts) alone. It The Greeks used some of the signs
is recorded in an inventory tablet found which stood for consonants found in . .
at the Mesopotamian city of Mari, that Phoenicianb ut not in Greek to represent
Zimri-Lim( 1810-1796B CEk),i ng of Mari, the vowels, signs for which were absent
received a gold vase from Yantinhamu, from the Phoeniciana lphabet (Naveh
king of Byblos (Albright 1945). During 1982:vii)T. his Greeka lphabetw as in turn
the period of the Persian Empire, Dar-
ius I and Xerxes used the ships of Tyre The ancient site of Byblost oday. Archae-
and Sidon against the Greeks. Persian ology in much of Lebanoni s hinderedb y the
control of these cities later gave way to richnesso f the Greco-Romanre mainsw hich
that of Greece with the conquest by deserve,c ertainlyt,o be preservedb, ut which ....
Alexander in 333 BCEG. recian contact lie on top of the earlierm aterialP. hotographb y
with Phoenicianc ities is attested as permissionof Dare l-MachrePqu blishers.
/:4-i!/:. ;: . .
2 BiblicalA rchaeologis5t7 :1 (1994)
., .-.. .? - .? ..... . . . .. ... . ... .:. . . .. ... . . .. .. .. ..
%...,?...--%.,,m??::.%:?, -:. , ?:%, W : l.%%., ,? -r% ,?...: . ?-:?:.- :.. ?:.5%. ,. g,I.,-. :.. ..?.. %....: :?.: .I%. -:,: &WE'. .?. .:.,, ,:.. -...: . ?.% "?? ?-.?...--? * . % 2.?. ...,..: :%; .:.;., , ...-Tr. q? .. ... :..-? ...% %.?a-.:. :, " ,, .?: ??:?.,... .?. . ?..I?..,*p% .: ,,.. : :;:?:!,.. ..'. ? ..%. ...,.. . ..:..%: :%,. : , . :., ;%. ...-? :-..... .:. .. ...%?q. . ..: . . :.?. .. . .?..-- ?4 ,. ...%. .-?-.i?.. ,. .. , ...?., ...?-I- .:. -? . I. ....::. .0 , l.% ;.. .. ..... ... ?: ....% .3% 1 ...-..% 1.. .- :. ..:?,? %%.. :.:.I?.%. . .%. ... : :: ?,.%% .:. %q.. ., .,:.%. ..-- .4W ... ..%% %:? , , :%.....1:... . %...:%- :1W,, ...?., :..O?..: .?. - .:-%%.. %.:,: 1 ??. ,....... . ..?..: -. ; ..: ..?,%: . - .., ... 1..-. ,. ...... . : .,,;? . %%.?.:..:? .. -?.. ,.. ,'...%. ..:.. .,. ...?..-% ,: ..:-?: - t. .?.-;.:.:. :..?.-.. ..? ..4.::;-? . 6: ?...-.. . ?...:. .-.,;.-?.:.:. ,,% .-? . ...It Ie..'.-:: :. .._ . ... . %:.i o . il,..e. .-?.., ?.% 4 .-.e. ..-...?...... 1--..:- :.: .. .?-.... : ..?:%.? .:ON ...-:.. . ,...?... : .... ;..-? ., 1 ::.- . ...: . .I.--? * -,- .:. ..%. %.. % I.,.- .?. ..,%.- ..-A.-.:: .. ..:. .: .?.. : . ... .: .... . .%.%...?.1, :..... ,. .: ...-.,.,: ? -.:..? . ....,. : ... . ?........ , ?:.*. .. ?.. ....? .I. . ll,:: n ll1..j, %. .l?.i%l-A.- ...m- . .,, r : .. -: ....%..o ,%.R & . :.::..,.% . % . . ,,%'.. ?:: .- . l. -?..." . i.?i- , . .. : ,.:. .: ? %,A.,. ?. ?.?.:...... ...? %. %. . . ?... ? ...%.: ,.? :.,. , .:,g?. ,% ?.%.:.% . V ... .,.:, ,:.,,? .??.:l.",. ...-.1.. %-,:% ..... . ?..? -..--.....:... : . %.. o ..-...- ...%. _.?.....-%. .?.% ...? .%S .- , :,e .,-. ?% .?... .?" . ,.a,.4 ? W.? 4, : ..:-- %. : %..... *?..,,: ..I- :? I.. %. w. . ?.?.? "-... ....X . :.?. :,.".%.,..?.,. ..%:...?: -?.:: ., : ,.-v,.?. ?:.. ..,- - ..?.. ,.'..,` . . . =. ?.- .,j .1.:I: ..: W ....? ..?.,. .. . "% .....l l ?.., ?..?. l., ,: ...w%.- ..? ?.,;?*,-. ...,, .-...,;.?. ..-e. .. . 4:%.% - , -1.1 :%..k . -:?-.?., .;. .%?. .?, *...?-..;, ......- ??..:I,- ...-?.%. .? . ...?:. ,.?. .....-?%.... .?-..,. :..11. .,%: .:.?. ?.,.,%.: j ....:..w. .?. l,....e.::,q .? :.1 . .-. .:.- . :. , ... .,,. L .. ? :...e ..%. . ,, ?. ?.e.. . ..? ....?. %? .,?.- ?.. . ..-. ..:... , ? . ... .'. l - m . p.%: v..-m 1%?. : . .. ..:..-.-w .. :. ..: ... -,.-.,...... -..- ..:. .?... ....:? .. ,:%.%..- ?..... .. .,::??...% .. , :.._. .--1<.,:.%..-, ,%,..l?. ...%?.?., .-. .- - . .r. ..%.-.; % .: :,-. .,.1...?1 ,k:. l. ....., .%...,..?... e,. ,.. . ? ,.. .?, '. .?.- .- %.. 1 ....W.%%%.-'., ..' . A.... ,%.??:?- ....? ... ;. ...:? , : .%.,,...%.-:Q%% 1 ? ?... .?. :-,:..-:" ,?, : V-%.- ?? . ....%% ,: j ..,- ;?. ?%1 ..:?.......%.-4 :... ..,....o, :- w ... ..- . .. A....: ' ..-,,, ......- -%, .%,,... . .:.,,:-,, : .%%..-? ,..... .,...::.:.?. %-.. ..?,, ...?..- .., ,,....% , ..-. : :e_.. .. .. e%S...-?. ..;? ::.- .: ,. %. .--.:. ;,.% ? w. ?: ....-?. ,: . : : :?.?- .:1: ?1 ....-1;, - . .%.?.. . .. ..:.?%- ,. -?,. ..:%. . ..- ? . - ....:.,- %,:,..-.. ..,:.ke,.,I.---: . ..; . ..... : . ...-. ...?.., ..,:. ... % ?-.-,.:,.:? ?. . :."%%: -? .. ,W..%. .....?- :..:.. . .-..: 4......,...%.-., ? :, .. . , .- .? .. ...",.V- ? : .? ..? ?. ,- -....... ..l?"..?,....:."., .- . :, .......,, ,? %?% "..:. .. ,.:.:'.?-..6. M . ...?%% :.:.%"-...-. . . ? . .u. . ...... -.,?-? .. ;kI1. .*-....%.: ..l-., . .%%%..-.. .. ?.: , .;.:.:?,.-.. ., .. .. ...,....--.. ..:. %- ::- %.,: ?-..i? .%W .. .... ....I...- M.c :.,? .-,??" ?. ..,.?.: ... . 1?.%-. : : l. .?..: 6 :.......Awj :,.. ?. ?.... ?... ?....,.e: ; ? .. .. ....?...- -..%. 1 . -. . .:I.. .. .. ? :..-,.. :%.. ...5..: .?. ? -?,..?.6 ? ?..?:? ?.: ? ..? ; --.. % .. .... .....- . . ..-.%.%.... :.-%%: .?-.?,%;.? . 1.: ..e-? :%, ,,1?.. ? - .. .?.. 1. .::.....,? ,1.-%?, , . I,.:--. - . .'..--%-..%.? ,% it.. ." , :-.?...-. %. .., .*..N.: . .. . . "?. . 1..:? : . ..,..- .: . ..: . .....I- ..I: : 7 :..;.. .?... . .?.. .: . . ... -.?.:., ?. ?...?? ... 0. -? 1-.. . ?A-. ? ,.....'4.. . ....,. ...7. .%,......: , :.. . ,.%.-. .::?,.,.- ...1 .? .......% ,::...??--,.?. ?? , %w..., ..4%.- ??. -.,-.? ": ?,.-.. ....i.-... . . : . %?.,-: .. .. :: ,- .% . ..-... .,, ?.,? ,.:?._ . ..-? . .:?.?...,. . .. .%?:,.. : ..:, , ..- . .kII-%. . ...%.. . :' .. . ..... . .- .,,? b , . ,. :.. : .%.: .. , .-..? ,?).- . ,:.. .. :A:%:.. . ..Zk. .?.:o. . .... .. ..v- .. .%. ?.4...-? . ..:.. ..:4. ..-- . .-. ...-..9, .... ? ..7. ..:. ..._....-. ,..,..., . ... ..? , ,,:i.I.. ? ?: ...: : ?. . ?-.v . :%.. . :....?e- . v . ?,.,.,-.:% ? ?:.? .?....... ., : .:-.:.*.z- l :.., . .........: :?: ..:.%., 1: %,? :, -. ..e . . ?-. ..,e... .,-.. I..... .%.... . .%.. ;.1.?... . .%. ?...,,. %. - %.s. . .?.. ...:... .. . :... .?. W..:.-:%? . 4.., .:. ,:.?a ? .%......- , ,. :?. . . ?.%?.%.: .? % .-,.. , U?.?-.-. ,,..??,%? w- ...... . ?,... .0.. :. ,.%?-.??-, ?: ? . :?-, . . .,..- .. -,.... .I.%c. ? ?..,. .- ... : g-... " '? .... . 1--...-o, .s :.%: ..-?,% , .. ..-. ? .... ..?.. ...,..0.% %,, ,% . .... . ...-.. :...:i.. : ...% .. . . .? : . .6. ? . . ... :..% ?- . ......... ..e. ..:. .:.,..:. . ...?:. . : . ..:..: .."..--,... ? : ...?%..,. -....,. ...,-....:.:% . ...:..,., . _-. 1,,.?: . -. %,...I ..::, - ?.-.-.?1 ? . ..- 0 .. .. I?,I.,:.. ?% ..m?.--.,?... . .. ? , .?%-.%%-?, ,- . :'-%,.: :.:. N ,.: f . % .,. . ..?.: , :.o:...% ,.,.,.% . ?...:: l.. : .'. .. .?,. .....? 11 r,".? ,x...- ?.. ??..:- ,w, . : .. . .?.,. ,. . .-...,: .1..e ...,?.'.. . . ... .. ,e.: : ... %: . . .. . : ..:.?-:&..%.. .:".W-:e%?, . A , -"-. ..-:. - ,... 1 .. ::.? ..%. , .... . ...,. . .;.....I ? :.?....%. . .., .1M'-,v .:, .. ., - .,,...- . ...I... %,- 1. l- ,: .%... ,%:% ,,".. ? .-,.,..k..-e.. . . ...-,. ? ?. .1. .: ,.'%... 1 .I ...-..-.--.- .:..w.%:...%,%-, ..Z- -.....- ...? ....%.... .'...w .%..?.... ....;% . ?.."....,..? . ..:....%.'.. :: .:.. . .....e- n".-,..%?,: v%e?...! ... . ???.: l . ??-..?. k: %. .. .,t ...; ...?%.. ..:*. ?....-.. . 1:. .. .?-%.w,? -. . .. ? *.-I,.k % . . ."... . .., .? . .-. ...0?, .??., . .-?i.. I1?..-.%? . . .. .;-?.%... ..,.A. :..:...- ?. ?. .N...%Z%... % .1, ,,.-.?"..:.:; 1 ? , ,.? . ..%- .IK..'?. ;?1 ? 1V. , %,..?-.....%%.. : .%?. ...,.... . .. -.. .? ...?..?. .-.....-... .,..:..; :? . -:.%%%...* :.. % ... . % ..?A:.. " ,...-,. ? :..:.-?.. .,,.., :6 ...I..:. .. ..; .I.... . .....- ........,%.%l%l.,1:0 . . .-,,.. ... ,d??,?-?. g,.. 11 .--.%:,? g. ..... . ... .,.. ::.%.. ....,.1 . ,:..??I..... :, .%.. . ....,... - .:.?. ?..?.--..*. . - .I....-?? : :.m, ..?,M?..?: .:.. - ?-.k...% .:.J-.. -.. ..?. ..%-..% .1?.. . .- .. :...%.. ?. ?: ..,-.:-..A ..? ..1? .,..-.. 1?. .,?..,... ? ..:.-` : . M?-.- .%.. , ?. l?.K%. .,e ??- e;..-.,1 ..: .%. %.%,1. . .... . % `1..-" - ?.-%-I -",..- : ........-?, . ?. ? ....,.e -. ...% -...-.. -.%. , .S.% : . : ,..%..:"... ... .,..1,....-. :... . . ..-?, .... w-,?... ....,W.,? ,.?.I:.-.... ..,... .W .. . ... ?,,%.I..:-. . ,% .%.,%e . ..,-?..6:,; ...- %-..-. ?: 7...e, * 1l .... ...:..%..,". .?. 0-, .?.... ., . .?... . ?4, "?. w-...:% 4 ..%.,..-" 0., ....:.% ..? . , .....,,, ..... ....1.:- M ,1R1I. , . ?, ...?, %,t....-.% . . v %.. . ,..:.:' .?1 . ,? ..?.:.: :... . ? -?%. 4:.:..-1 .J... .... .:.%%.. 4.%. ? ..-,...f.%1. ;..... .. . .?--:... . ..?,....? . 1- S...... 0.- ., % 1.:..-?... . ..?.-...X . .. .t ..,.:. .?%.... ..N...'.. .,. . .l.:.:.,?-. .. ........% ? .. ...., , : .%- 1.. -. i, .'--e.,,.. X .?? ..,A.%,,. . . ?, .., . .%. ..?.-.:.:...-:. .....,-,-. ..% .N, .-:,.. ., . :..";%: :1 . .?! ...-.-. .w. ..l%... ..,.', ....,:. . ., 1 ..?.... . - - ...:... , % ...,? -, ? -.. %"II... " .. M?..I,-A. .,% :.? 1 .. , : ...4.. ?1.,.... . :. ..: .. ,I,.%... ?.::. ., .....N.. %i .,.,.-,-.: . .- ,. 0 :..M . %.,.:?, .l..... .m . .-l .. .. . :- ..: .?- ...a. . A.K...,:% . . .0TV. .. ...,.. -:. . ?.,.. ... . .%.- ..1. - O..v m,I.,. .:... . . .. : .. ....m,:.-.. - . .-I:.,?:. . .. . ..%?YI :.%: ...,-??: ` .: : "o ::...- . :: .% .% . ...:.. ..t ,*1 %I..? w..:.,..., ..1. . .-....... e ?.,.1? ?.......l.. l .. I. . :l.:. . .-i, ..,.?M%..:. 1 : % ?:. . , 1". . W-. ? ..I"e-:. : % % ?...%.%. .' . .-e.... .... .M.,.. ..%.%- ,.:%.1.. . ".. .:,. : ....., ..? .1.."...% .W: .,...- ,.. ? ..l..??. . . .-:.-:.. .-% . ? .?:- % ...-1... :. .. . .... . , .,..W_:. ? .? :..-.:: -: ?:.. ..4 ...... -. . ?.,..:.., . . . .?.1 ? .-w ... .- .%.. .. ?..I ? .. ... ,- ...I.-? ?,...?.. ? w. .. L-. .-.?? , ..... f%? z-:. .. .M-. . :-..? ::4.?, .,.,.. , . .k....? ..% .,w.4,.. lw:..l . ..?. ?. . ...?-:- : "..-%.- .? .W 1.? ..m. . ,..%..:%:..:....:. .. ...`.w..% ...:.. .C..-.:.,.. . ..%.?. ,1IIf -:.: . . ...,..... :., . .... . .... .- ..-?:;:, ::,?--- ....%,...: : ... . ., ., .,.. . ........,.:.. a .l..l ? : . :...... %.... 1 ,:;?i, . ... .,..- ,.?.... : ..?....?- ..: .. . .. ?,.-.. i. ,. . .... ...... ..: . .?, -. ,. .-.,,... ,.. .- ..,.%:.? .: , .e-.. ?.. .,- .- .4. , - .-.....% - ?, , :?1 4..-.. ... .?,. x1 ?.-.1.. A .. ??.I ,.?.. :.?%.;:. .;-. .? ....,: .. :?. . .1?,... %. -. , - i.,?.?%. ,: :..?C ..:..:.... ,?.. *%,%? ,--? ..,,??. .--... ..%- ,.. ?..l- ?.......%. .1 , ,...., - .q ..,??., ? % ...-..--, .... .,?.-II. .:: ?.... .-? -..- . . t. ? c.*.A,.?% .,.1? , :-1. -? .....,?.. 1... . ?.. .?. .,?1..... .. ..%. .:1,5. .. .;-?? .. ?, ,, .%?,:-: ..?.-: -. . :.?.%-?-.,. %.?:, .. ...... ., -- ,.,: ??:_,. -., ... ..%. % .%,: ., ,. .,.,.?.. ? ?,: ?:....E.%w..-, . . ,, :..?...?,k-..?: ?.%:??.. .% - : ?.e1.?%..:, , ?..,-?.% . t... , % .,,?.. 1,:.-?c..w,.- _ .%-, ?A . .-.... ..-.:.::. -' ,.?...-..:: ?.?.j% ?.-K. ...'%?%.. ..,4:j?:. ,,...%e . .. ".?..% . ..?- : -.. ...:..;%--"... :.'% ,. , .-, ?,M.% -.. 1 , ...?, ? ?%- .?e:..?v.f , ..,.I- ?*. ,.:..,.- ? .; .",.-.,e ??., %:? . % ..,. ., -. ,,'.?IN - ....... . ... . 4..?%.e3 .?1! .:.. .,.:.:1.%. ".,,, ,; :---..: ,? ?.? .:? ,; .?..I,... . ,....:..c. ...?-,.?, ', ,:... . .-.`.- ? :.%.,. . .,, ..?..?- ? ,., ? .%,. . -- .:. ?...-?. -T :.-..?..,-. ?e : . O ., ?"1-%4._. .:. .:. ,.".; .. .. %,? *;:.4 .%: .:- . .. .. .l ..-, ?.. - ?.,., , .,.?. .; %1..!I%.?. , ?.?%I.?';.?j 1 :'. . lF??:l . L: ,%%-l-'?.. ?: ? ,;,., :.? 4 .-..-.-%.. ... ?. -..... . ...3...., 1 ;?.%.,-,-?? : . . %?-,.?..-- . :.%. . ..,.". . I 3 ? ..1.- ., .-:.n!: ? e . .N-....: ,..j.*-. ., . .... .. , - '-. . : :."?.?- ? . :l,???1: ,:?e-,,Z ?1,;:l?j?7el?.: : 1l... .:V - .v,.3. ,: -: . :,.:.,? ,..,..?wl: l?, ,?,.??.:;?? - . : ,-?%. .. -, ?.....- . ..:. , ?. .?.. --. :...?,-.? ? .?. .:,, ., ?",!.% .... .. v. :. -6 1 .. - ,?.?..,---?- :..%..? ,?: ? ,??.-.? ?,,,%.%,A .:...-, . ... 0 ,I..?., ,? ....I, -.... .? , . ,-...- ? .:., . ...%:*?-? ,?:.- 1...? ..? - ? ,,;A. .. , ?: , %? ...-..?-- .. .. ? 0.-.1. -:: ?.:.A?.. ;.l-.,%,? ?v?..-? . ?,.. .,.'?.1._, ?. ..-..-:". ..%....:.. : ?..:.,.e?? ..?? , .:.-%.4.... . ?,..:v ?..?.%r : i,?...: . ,. :?.-? ..:...w.c....?. ..?-..:?,: % .:,I...,? , 1, i,:- ,?- .-- ,.. .- ,.?.-?.-:;., .::::c.?..-?.,,,%:..,.:,-l,: .. ?t%..4, -..:.:?1. , , -%.-;?? ? ..... :. . -.'...- . & . , .. eC ,I.:... ?.. ..? :;..,? . , ?,,, ? -%-..:?-%, - ?, %.:-,.:..1 ? ?.V, .? --.. ?. --.": : ?- . :. :...O.,.. 4 . .:I,. .?, ?.:%. . ... ,......?, :, ?? :?...-.:. . . . %,..i.,. -..?I : ...?I,..?;.%.:. . ... .- -?..V? ....?.- .-. %.III?.-? ... ,...--.::.:.? ..? .:--.% : .. -' . . .....,.-.e ?. -.?.. ".?. .?' . ..,... % , ..'-... %?.. . .. .. ?,..:? . . . .. .....-.: .,?..:.: ,.. .. %. ...... . :?-......:?%,,..k- . ?. ,"%. , ,: ..: ?..-.-.?. % . ,:? ?e., : :? t.-...:.. .% .,:..?.. . n.I ...k- .- 1.5,?....., ? ,:?? .o:? I . :...%-,,. - .-.:.. :m. ........:... , .-.... .. . ,...: .I -?..?- . ?:?, , ...,%. . ....: ...-. ? : - .- .,...., ::.% . ..:..,, .V:,. :?....... " ?,-...-.-" ? ..:-:.% : ...?.-.,. -, -..?:., E..%...I-.. .-.-..?......:.:?? :..:. ., .. %...- ,... -?....-1, .. -,,,.....-- :, ......-, . ".?,........ .'. :I.???. .%...... . ,.,..j-..:.? .? .......? .-?. ....- .,. .... .%? .. .. .. . ., , :' .., ... .,,% -.;?.%. ... ?. ,o. ? ...:? ....,. .. -...: ::. .%,...,...; .:. ,, ::.% "...j...?,:. % I:, . ,! , ... . .,% .:..% .....l -,?-.?.......%., , : ..2.- ,... ?..... ,.? :,. ..-. o.. ? ..,.:.0.- . -.?..? ,? -:?:, :;.:%.,..?l :k4 . ?': ,. ?..,,,,. .- .?.,,.? . ..f..., . -......?. ? ??.k,... .%1.-.., .:% ...." : .-?...,,?.. .*, :w..%o ,. ..,%-. ? ? ::: . .? .?.-:,?.. ... V .... . .: - ?. .,. . .., ,..%. .--?%:;'..-. ?1-, %..-.. .. ...,..l..,.:. ,:. ., ?.-....1%. .?'. -..?, . ?. .. , :? ..?.... , 4 , . - ., . : ....?,: . ,...%l ., ?,, .....- :?. .:??.?..?.?. . ::%??. ?...,: :%?.,, ?l,? .. .? . .g%-%-?.?f'. ? ,.w ::, ...?..?, % ..:?- ,.:. 1." _? -. .,::..;? . ;. .4...... ,....%"! , -:?.wS.,-i? , , 4:- '.;..-.,W,...?.. %,: .:. ... ?,:iI.1?: ? 'i V'..,?.,., - .. :.:?.- .::...??..--- ,..: : .. :.?,..*:-:. ,.: :,,?: .-. .: 4..%, ...: ?.. ..-.%.-: .. ,! .". ...I, -? ?." ,,.-: ?..:....%-? ... ? ?.- .- .:: ?...,.. :. ?.....,..??. -.? ?.. l,... .._;..,..:.-....?... ..: .% - e4:.?:..,?%....-. ?. ...,. ...., ..' l....,-., . - .. .- ? . ..... , ..' .., . . f....: : , ..... . ....?.-: .%.1. ..-... .. ... ..-.- . .. 1......: ., . .%.... . .. -. ...?. .? . ., -?. ?-?... rn?. k .... ,% :k.--- .1..?.:, - - -, 1, . V: 1 .... .. 1... ,. .1. 1:..... .. : .?,. :.: ?...?:? .-?.?? ..: ? -.t-. .:.?:?I.,:., -. .? . .,.,.,:?,..% ,,%....- %f . ?..: :. .... .:.. .. :...e.,....-. . ,..---": . ..1. . .. ,?. .l.? :.:1-.... .?.. . .*. ..%.-?.? -:? , ?.. . ....: - ,??.-.. -:: :. ... . .?.:?.- .,..:- , -.:: ..'... ... ? .- ?.. ..-: .. ..... ., ..- 7, %?.,..:...:-. ? , l:... V.....?:? . -. %. ?, ,.%. -" . ..?%c.: :l : ,.. ..? . o...-? .. :. . ?..n?? ?? ,." ,%-....%? , .,..%"-.?. ..? .:"-4. ' ..?..,.-- ?.? ?.I... ..: .e .:.. :". %:.....,;., &,w...- -.. ?. % : -o., p. ? .I.I* ..I:... .... ..- - t?:?.,.r:. . .??- ? :; % ?.. ,...: ..? . : .--...-: . ?..? ... .." . i ....- .. ...., ....- ....?,:-%:%..-. , .......,% ......??!.,??: . .l .',%,. :, :..e, .?.,....: ,.:? ,. .:....: . . . :.. ... .I.%-.:, ?,. : 4 ..?? ...:. . .: ..l: -..: .-,,.%. - %,- ...:. - .':.-- ..5 .W.....-.. .... . .. ,- .. ..:. .-,- ...._.. ., .?.. ....:...?,. , .- .... -.... . ,., .---.--. .?.,?,. ..%,:.I- . .- .. ?.-...? ... .... .. ?-......-.-,?...%-,-.'. .. .. .? - -.% I .. .m" :.-. .?.. . .. . ..,-.. ...?.. .. ..:.:...?- !1:.. ?:..:. ?.,. ..*%, .....-..:L:. %-, :? ,.. ..r ..?.... ... ...^. %....,%.-. - .... -- ..... ?... .. ..:.?,.. ...-. .. .. V??.?., . ..., .-. .... ..:..:.:- . ...4.-.. :.... ..?..- ....' .... ...1,- .- , ......? . ? . . ...... .1 ... :. .?. :? . -I... ..?.%.- . -. -. :. . .%..- ;.%?..?? . . ....;% ?. ?. ..?. ...?.. .-.... .w %.%. ..---. !....-?..?I?.:. .. .....--,::?.. . :..% ...... -... .F.-%- ..... ...... % .% I -. .::: w .,.....- ::: %.?.?. . -.. . ...,... . ; .:.. .-.. . %::: :: .%.% ....- 1 .....: .;%?% .. .... . :..-. : ...,. ...?. --, k : .?-.. ? . 1 ,.,...% .%. : .?:? .A..,..:. . ?% . ....- :...% -.. ...:.. .5. . -... . : .. . ....?. .... .:? ? ?-. ,.,.". ?. f...% *.... - ... w.-?.?...,?:,? . ... .,-...... ....... 4 .. c. .. 0:,. ..!...R ., .., .. %%-? .... .:. i.. %,.".. kq* ". .-:? . :? ..;.?? :.% , ? . .1.. . ?: .. .%1d1:-1. . .:. .. ::. ..-.. ..%:..% ...:....::.. . ..: ... ? ..:. .. .... .....-. % ..?., . ... ..::. . ?. .:-..k..-. - ^ ,.,... ? . .... . . . .. .. .. .:..? . e ....-A ....l.... . .. o::.. . :x:.. -q_-, ,,?- %- .?..?:.%?. ;;q:,. I.-.... . %%: .. .f...:?- .: . .t I....-. ,. . ...., . ,.. . - .? ,.o.., .. . :.. . :,- ...-. .;, . , .. .-.-.:.: ::..?..e ...., ... .. . %. ...: .:......?% : -.: .%.. .? %: .. , . ?--.?. ? . i%?... ... .:: . . .. :...,:.?.. . . .,. ... - .e.?.. .?...:??. .... n... :.1..: 0: :.. .,-:..%, . .%. ..: % .-?.-%- :. .- ...... . , .. ...... ....... : ..-. .. ....... . ;..% - . :.-:. 1 ....... -.,... . :?. ? ..... -%. . ..,. : .-.... .-, .-..%. .. . %...2.?:. :-W:, . ,.:l..... - ,.- .:...?: : -. :? . :? . ..:%:.. ..:. ... -, ,. .*:.%. . k..:.,...,.% %%.:.. ..I. .. % ..*. .:.. : ..%-:V .:. :: ::-.-. . ..:. I r?A. ... % ...-.. . . . ....-. ...-? :. A?.... - .?..Y. .......V.. , ..: .....-....?: .. ? ::%. ....... .:.. ;:,...:,. v. .. .% .:%. . . ......:%. ........... .... ?. ...:.. - :. . ,. -.I. ..?..._ .. -,.. . . :,-.. .? . :. : .; ....- 1I...% .., l ;....:. .?:.:: ....- * . .%%- :: ?: ..?.:?. ::. . : I- ...? ...:. ...I:.... . -.- .1 ]?.. . %% :?.. ........ ... .....-. .. .. .. ..m%- -,...: .. .. ? *?:.,,:,%.?-.. %,....? , .... ... .,.. .d?.: ....,.: .... . .. ... %..;, . -- ...-.:1:: ..% %. ....? .: .. , ., .... . ...... .:....,. :?. ?... :.:. %:.. .., .< .....- ........ ..:.,. .: ..., .,... ... 1?. 1:.. ..,v:. .:??: , .-... .. . .....--;- .....% .. ....,...% .. .... . .. ..:1-.-* . .. .-:... . .. . .?. ... 1 ...... ..,. ,1.I. ... - .-. . %...... ..% I.... ....- ?......:. ?. -.... -....1, . % ... . .I : .... ..% ......-: .,?-.:; :. ..:.? . .-:. ? .e ,.....?"-:, k? .% .:....a ...-?.. ...4., . ..... : ?..... . . .... % :.:. ..1... .., ?...? . ?. ,. % ....-.. .I ,...%?,%... ::?.: : ?. , ?. 1 .. . -" ..:.%-: ,?: - , . .... . ...., ...... .... ,... .%- .......... . .- . ..... .... ... . %%:. ,; ?...;%. , ... .%...--?. %- - ..... ......:..%-.e., . :.%-. ?.* ...-.,.%.-: -- ?. ... .....:..J.. . . , .. .....%.: ?. . .......j , .:: . ?..?... .?.?..... :-. ...--., , . . I...?,.. .?e ?? .:?. :.., ,. ..-..%... . :.? ,...:... . ..-. %: .?. .... ....,,-. .?? ?..:. : . . ?..%. :?,. :.I?...% .... : ?.... ?..:?. .. .,,. ;."..-...., . .-.-: . ? .. ,: ..-.... ,:... ?,..-:..., ., ?. ...,-- .-, ?%.:..'.... % :...:.. . ?: :....: ?. :.,:% ? :." .....' .; . - .' ..-- .:.. . '...., .. % ..-.. . .,: .. ...- : .:.*. ?. ..:. . ;..?.. .%-.:,.:... .?%.. ? ,.. .!:,.:...? ..... . . :?:....:.. . ,. .... .e%.....-?- . ., ::., : :..-.e.1 , 1... .. ?..: ...0.. ,. ?.. . . -. ....:% . .. .. .-....--.. -w .?.- .. ..-.. . ..- %..`.,.: ? `,O . .... ... e4. ?? . .... .. ...:.-?. ..... .:... . ......? ..... .- .. ,.?.. . .: -.%'......... . .?:% ,%... %:,..... %......,.-%..,% ? ,,.?...-?-- j. ,-, ??::% ..? %-..-. ,.?. ..-..... . ..M.. K. .. .1: ,11 ....? 3 ...-.:. . , %:...1I.:.% , .. . ,. .. -... .? .%.... ,?. o.. .. ..::.? . , ... ...-:v ... . :... .,. ....: . ,. ....%. , . ..?..: ....... ..: . ...... % ? . . %.:.. ?. .eK??%. . .-.... ? -. -....... .. .. .,..?.1. ?-:.. -..'-...... I , -.. ... ... : . ,... ..k... ::. ... .:.. ..:. . .. .-.. . .... :. :..%? .?..%...-- !,.g ? ... , . . ? -.%.:.. . ...aM... . ..... . .%.. ..:. .'. .. .. -..... . ...?..,. . ... .... :.. .-_ .. .. % ...: %..1. ". ... ... .,.0W.. ..% 1.:. -3..:- ?.- ....?0 ..-. ..... . .. . . .:-..?..? .. :. . -'...%. .I....... . . ...? .. . .... % ::. ..%..C.: :, --..: .:.. ..... . r. . %.... .. .'.".". , 1 :?%., : ... ..... ..-%.. -II .". -:?. 1 .....- :. : :.:.: . ..... . ....?t. .... 1..... . .-.,.:: . ...... .- -.%,1.:..-. ....N %:-. .1 .?% r.. ::. ..S?..- % .. .., .........' :.1 . , .... .. :... .....a. . .:I.:.- .: ,,,. . . " . .g...: -.. ? .-.. . .... .. . -.... ,% . .... ..... . . ....... . .? . ,. ....?`.. ,:,;? _`,I1: - X- 7.,.... .X :. 1-.. N?, .?, .... :. .. .:.. ",... ;`!-, ,?.. . - . . .-.. :',. .: F ... ?.-? ...?' .%... W. . *..?.0, - ,. ?0... ,?. -0..,;? .."%..-, . :. .. . ,.... ?. I? . " :.... . .. . . .... . ....'A. . ... ... . . .... :.. .,V ....% W-?., ? ..... ,&.. ....g.. n., .... . . .?.. ,.. ??. . YR. ,., ? ...-. - X. ??., . ? ,.:... ?-.,XM- ?? . , .e., -..l.%... . :... . ... .. .... I... . ... .. I"I?. . .. .-. .?.:.. . ,.: ...*: -.. : .: : ... :.% i. .g,,. . . .? M.... .... . , ;- I.%.. , M. .. ... :-: %% . ?..; ..I, -. .. .. ... .... ?.,'?.?, ? ;.;,%, .. .. .. :.m. .. ? .... . .... -??%, ?%,,,? , .,,. ..- .:, .1..1 , . .. :..... .. .... :. . . -. ., ",-R . .,,? ?, %-.. , -&.-. ....... .?. - .... .. :".. .,,,.?,:. .,.?;,1,11.... .,W. . .. ?--. ?-:? -, ... ,..? - . ..-..:. ..?. . .., ..... ... .- , ,.,1?1. .. .:. , .-I -. .c.?-..,p. P""-, ... -. :x .*. . . ..%:?. . -.. ., .... 7.-. . ; ..... *. . . I.".96. . . ... .? %,. ... .. -? .... ....11.1.. .. .% -. .?-.., L - . .?... ... . .1 . ..?k . .-.. .. W.. ..I. ... .. .. ..-.. .M,,??,R%.. .-.. ?.. .. ... % . . ?. .I:-%.% . .? ...? ...,:? .?., .........:-% , .... .. ,.. . ? . .:. .. .? .?? . ? ?? ?..:? ...:- .. - ..... :- ... :,A,. N - .?. ., , ..... ...-.. ..: ,I .-1% .. :...-.?., _.. , .. .?.. ?:.:???? -?.:. :?.? ??...% .il:, .? ::? .,.- ? :?:,,. s.? - ....:, .. . .. .... ... .... -.e. ,.-T..: . ..".. -.. . . . . .. --;?, '... . ., : -% %...... ?0 ,?%!... ? e ,?,-? .,,:.? . .? ... . 1% l. .. .. .: .. .-..? . . %. ... . . .:.. . .. . ..,. . . .... I ? ... ..? . . .
I Arvad rivers, an area that corresponds The term Canaan,h owever,i ncluded
roughly to modem Lebanon,a long with more than just Phoeniciai;t encompassed
parts of modem Israel and Syria. The most of the Levant, including Phoenicia,
Greekp hoinike'P, hoeniciai's relatedt o the Israel,M oab, and other territoriesT. here-
Greek word phoinix' purple,' and it is fore, whereas the Greek authors could
generally believed that the region got its use phoiniket o designate just Phoenicia,
name from the dye, since a purple dye Semitic writers used the name of the
was manufactured in this area. Moscati prominent Phoenicianc ities, such as
(1965:3-4), however, argues for the Gubla (Byblos), Tyre,a nd Sidon. For
.j;
product being named after the region. example, the author of Jdg 3:3 refers to
Phoinikei,s attested in Homer (Od. 4.83) the Phoeniciansa s the 4ffdoni',S idon-
,?L4L_ ~ and a term for purple, po-ni-ki-yad, e- ian(s); and the author of 1 Chr 22:4
Donald R. Vancer eceiveda M.A. in scribinga cart (Moscati1 965:3)i,s found speaks of haJfd6ntmw estsao rim, 'the
Hebrew Languagef romt he Institute in Linear B, the late second millennium Sidonians and the Tyrians'S uch use of
of Holy LandS tudiesi n Jerusalem, Greek in syllabic script from Mycenae. city names is explained, at least in part,
Israela nd studied NorthwestS emitic The Semitic term for the region is by the fact that Phoenicia,u nlike first
philologyu nderD ennis Pardeea t the kncn,' Canaan'.T he earliest use of Ca- millennium Israel,w as never a unified
OrientalI nstituteo f the Universityo f naan is in the cuneiform texts of Ebla, country.A t various times in Phoenicia's
Chicago.V ancei s currentlyt eachinga t which date to the third millennium BCE, history,o ne or another of its majorc ities
OralR obertsU niversityH. e is finishing where it appears as ki-na-na-im.I5t also would be more powerful, but they never
his Ph.D.i n the JointD octoraPl rogram occurs as kinazbui n a letter to Yasmah- banded togethert o form a nation.B yblos
at the Universityo f Denvera nd the Iliff Adad (1796-1780B CEk),i ng of Mari (Sas- held sway early on, then Tyre predom-
Sdcishsoeortlo aft iTohnoe no ltohgey aa bnsden isc weo rfi mtinetgeh rii sn son 1984:90)A. t Nuzi, the word kinabhu, inated in the first half of the first millen-
biblicalH ebrewp oetry.H is research according to the CAD, refers "tot he dye nium, and during the Persian Period,
interestsi ncludet he historicalg ram- and the color producedf rom it," while Sidon was the chief city.6
mara nd epigraphyo f the Northwest in the Amama letters Canaan is called
Semiticl anguagesa s well as computer matKinajhwi hich is sometimes written Language
applicationtso textuals tudies, particu- matKi-na-a-n(iE A 137:76).T he Greek From these same cities and theirc olonies,
larly font development. term,t hen, accordingt o Speiser (1936), inscriptions written in a North-west Se-
is a calquet, hat is, a translationo f an mitic language have been recovered.7
equivalent Canaanite expression. He This language is called Phoeniciana nd
borrowed by the Latinsw hose alphabet postulatesa Canaanitet erm for purple, is closely related to Hebrew. Phoenician
is the basis of our own. *kncn(, as yet un-attested) from which developed through several phases and
In this article,w e will explore the the ancient designation of the region, into several dialects:O ld Byblian (11th/
most important inscriptions written in *kncn( kinacnu= cuneiform kinahnu; 10th cent. BCEin scriptions from Byblos;
Phoeniciani, n an arear anging from Mes- Hebrew kendcan'C, anaan')w, as derived. e.g., Ahiram);B yblian (6th/4th cent. BCE
opotamia to Spain. We will begin with Astour (1965),h owever, argues that the inscriptions from Byblos; e.g., Yehau-
a brief outline of the history of the lan- original form was *inacu with the addi- milk); North Phoenician (9th-7th cent.
guage, pointing out the elements that tion of an "attested,t hough rare, BCEin scriptions from Syria, Cilicia, and
distinguish it from the other Semitic Semitic noun-forming suffix" -n- ,from Ur; e.g., Karatepe);M iddle Phoenician
languages. Then we will discuss the in- a root *kncm eaning "to bow down" (6th-4th cent. BCEin scriptions mainly
scriptionst hemselves, pointing out the and, when said of the sun, "to set." from Tyrea nd Sidon; e.g., Eshmunazar);
contributionst hey make to the history Thus "itw ould be exactlye quivalent to Late Phoenician( 3rd-Ist cent. BCEin -
of Palestinea nd Syria.S ince the history the Latin occidereth e derived form scriptionsm ostly from Umm el-CAmed-
of Phoeniciai s a history of its cities, we KinaC uo r signifying the 'Occi- ancient Hammon-south of Tyre,e .g.,
Kinanu
will group the inscriptionsa ccordingt o dent', the 'Lando f Sunset' or Umm el-CAmedi v); the dialects of
the cities in which they were found and 'Westland' the West Semitic transla- Cyprus (9th-2nd cent. BCEin scriptions
will discuss them chronologically. tion or counterparto f Amurru," the from Cyprus, e.g., Temple TariffA , B);
Mesopotamian term for Syria which the WesternM editerranean( 9th-5thc ent.
means 'West'( Astour1 965:348)M. uhly BCEi nscriptions, e.g., Golden Sheet of
Name, Language, (1970:29f)e els that Astour's hypothesis Pyrgi); Punic (WesternM editerranean
and Script is impossible. Rather,h e agrees with texts 5th cent. BCEto the fall of Carth-
Speiser that the Greek title is a calque, age in 146 BCEe,. g., Carthage Sacrifice
Name but from the Hurrian kinabiu rather Tariff)a; nd Late Punic (WesternM editer-
Phoeniciai s the ancient Greek term for than from a Canaanite *knc( Muhly ranean texts from 146 BCEto the 6th cent.
the coastal area between the Litani and 1970:34). CE,e .g., Lybian alter inscription)."
4 BiblicaAl rchaeologis5t7 :1 (1994)
PhcenicianI soglosses Hebrew Calmd',y oung woman'). Old For the verb 'to be', Phoenicianu ses the
Featurest hat are unique to a language Phoenicianh as a reflexive voice of the root kn where Hebrew uses hyh, and
group, language, or dialect and which Ground stem which is formed by infix- for 'to make', Phoenicianu ses the root
can be used to distinguishi t from another ing a t between the first and second pCIw hereas Hebrew predominantly
language group, language, or dialect radicalso f the root (a Gt stem), (e.g., Ahi- uses csh. The Phoenicianw ord for 'gold'
are called isoglosses. Isoglosses can be ram, line 2; jussive,3 rd, feminine, singu- is hr~w hile the Hebrew one is zhb.13
of a phonological nature (vowels and lar, thtsp" may it be plucked out," thtpk Phoeniciana nd Hebrew use benf or 'son'
consonants) and of a morphological "may it be overturned")T. his patterni s while Aramaicu ses bar( see Gras,R ouil-
nature( e.g.,t he conjugationo f verbs),b ut found in Ugaritica nd in the Mesha stone lard, and Teixidor 1989:30-31).
they can also be syntactic (e.g., expres- but is only a relici n Hebrew preserved
sions of genitival relations) or lexical in the place name 3eltfqP.P hoenician Script
(vocabulary). and Hebrew use the definite articleh a- The Phoenicians cript was borrowed by
while Aramaici ndicatest he determined the Hebrews and the for their
Aramaeans
Phonology. Proto-Semitic* hh as fallen state of a noun with the suffix -a. Phoe- languages.14I t consists of 22 signs and,
together with h (e.g., *39,' brother'4 nician is unique among the Semitic lan- given the "complete absence of spelling
Phoenician" h);* 9a nd *tw ith s' (e.g.,s 'bc, guages in formingi ts causatives tem with variationsi n the Phoeniciani nscriptions
'satiety'4 Phoenicians ?bC*t;i t 'three' a prefixed y-forming a Yipcil-which as far back as they go," the 22 letters of
--
PhoenicianJ sV);*9d w ith z (*d, 'this' developed from the older *hi-.ll the alphabetw ould appeart o satisfyc om-
Phoenicianz ); *z and *dw ith s (e.g., *4h-z pletely the
'arrow'4 Phoenician land'" - needs of the
Phoenician9 ri);a nd *g* w,;i t*hJ cr (de..,g ., *glmt, language, that
'young girl, maid' - Phoenician- lmt). is, the signs
Hebrew exhibitst hese same phenomena stand in one-to-
with the exceptiont hat it preservesP roto- one correspon-
Semitic *s,.T he Aramaic languages, dence to the
though sharing some of these phonolog- phonemes they
ical shifts, exhibit some different ones represent.'5
(for which see Layton [1988]:174-175). This is not true
In Late Punic, the Phoenicianl aryngeals in Hebrew, for
'UN,
and h and the Phoenicianp haryngeals example, where
c and h were weakened and sometimes N:: __ one sign (CLi)s
lost altogether.A s for vowels, as near made to stand
as can be determinedf or Phoeniciana nd ......... forb oth // and
early Punic (since these languages did /?/. The Mas-
?CIX:gl.N
not write the vowels), the repertoire fm~wa oretes later dis-
was made up of a, i, and u, and J (due ~P NN tinguished this
to the Canaanite shift wherein an origi- dual use by
nal dbecame 6-in fact this j often de- means of dia-
veloped in Phoeniciant o 4),11o, a nd ia. critical marks
Whether the a arising from lengthening (t and t re-
of a existed is debated. Phoenicianr e-
spectively).
duced the diphthongs *ayt o j and *aw The Phoenician
to J (examples: *baytui s in Phoenician script is conso-
bht,' house',c f. the Greekn ame of the let- nantal; there
ter b~ta,a nd Hebrew construct state b~t, are no signs
versus the Hebrew absolute bdyit,( Segert Lexicography. Where Hebrew uses 16", for vowels. As noted above, it was the
1976:76? 36.71);a nd *mawtub ecomes 'not',P hoenicianu ses bl, 'not' (balo ccurs Greeks who transformed the script
in Phoenicianm ota nd even mit as the in Ugaritic and in Hebrew but is com- by having the signs which stood for
Greek transcriptionsm ot,a nd mout paratively rare).P hoenicianh as the in- Phoenicianc onsonants not present in
attest [Sanchuniaton2 and 34]). dependent personal3 rd, m, s, pronoun the Greek language represent the
h t, 'he, him' (= Ugaritich wt) in addition vowels (e.g., Phoenicianh became the
Morphology. The Proto-Semiticf emi- to h , 'he, him' which Hebrew has. The Greek vowel e, epsilon).16L ater,t he
nine marker *t (or *at)i s preserved in words ksA',t hrone'a nd htr 'scepter' in sporadic use of certain consonants to
Phoenicianw hereas in Hebrew, for the line 2 of the Ahiram inscriptiona re of indicate certain vowels (the so-called
most part, it has become a (e.g., Ugaritic feminine gender (as they are in Ugaritic) matresl ectionis),m uch like the system
*tlmt,' girl',P hoenicianC lmt',m aid, and whereas they are masculinei n Hebrew.12 in Hebrew and Aramaic, developed,
BiblicaAl rchaeolog5is7t: 1( 1994) 5
but mainly in the West (in the East this carriedt o Ur in Mesopotamia.T he texts with Egypt. It is to this period that the
practice was rare and chiefly in foreign were carved in stone (both incised and Temple of the Obelisks (the court of this
names and words). The names of the in relief),s cratchedo n ostraca( potsherds) temple had a great number of stone
lettersa re not known from Phoenician and intact vessels, inscribed on metal obelisks) belongs and to which Dunand
but only from the Hebrew and Greek and ivory, and penned with ink on os- relegatedt he Pseudo-Hieroglyphic" enig-
traditions.T he Phoeniciana lphabetm ay tracaa nd papyri. Therei s even a section matic Bybliani nscriptions"2 3T ombsI -IV
be the end result of a long development in the Latin comedy Ponulus by Plautus of the royal necropolisd ate to the Middle
from the script of the Proto-Sinaitici n- where a certain Hanno gives several Bronze Age. The archaeologicalr emains
scriptions,b ut this is not certains ince the lines of dialogue in Punic (Sznycer1 967). from the LateB ronzeA ge include Tombs
Proto-Sinaitici nscriptions are still not Greek authors make mention of Phoeni- V-IX;T ombV contained the Ahiram sar-
fully deciphered.17T he later Punic script cian books on papyrus but none is extant cophagus. There is a complete absence
becamei ncreasinglyc ursiveu sing increas- today. There are no mythological texts of Iron Age stratified levels from Byb-
ing numbers of letterc ombinationsc alled preserved. Most of the texts are funer- los, yet we know from Iron Age texts
ligatures (our sign w is a ligaturer epre- ary (e.g., Ahiram's coffin)a nd/or votive such as the Egyptian tale of Wen-Amon
senting the vowels o and e) so that very (e.g., Umm el-CAmedx iii), but there are (ANET:25-29)t hat the city existed at
late texts can be quite difficult to deci- some building (e.g., Yehimilk)a nd royal that period. It is possible that the Iron
pher.18P hcenicianl,i ke Hebrew,i s written (e.g., Kilamuwa) inscriptions.T he over- Age city is under the modem construc-
right to left (at the time of the El-Khadr whelming majorityo f texts are the ded- tion of Jebeila nd is thus not available
arrowheads [c. 1150-950 BCE]h,o wever, icatory formulaeo n the stele associated for excavation.
the orientation of the script seems to with the burials in the Tanit precinct of
have not been fixed [see below and Le- Carthage (e.g., KAI# 88).20T here are a Ahiram (KAI# #1-2). In 1923, Pierre
maire 1989:53-54]).S ome of the inscrip- few inscriptions detailing the offerings Montet discoveredi n the royal necropolis
tions use marks to indicate the division in a sanctuary (e.g., the Temple Tariff). of Byblos a stone sarcophagus
between words, but as a rule Phoenician Therea re two private letters on papyri decorated
inscriptionsd id not divide words.19T he (KAI# # 50-51) and many examples of with
Phoenicians cript was not, however, the noncontiguous texts (i.e.,i solated words
only one employed to record the lan- and phrases) such as personal names
guage. Therea re Phoeniciant exts in both in seals and graffiti (Phceniciann ames
the Greek and Roman alphabets and have been found on Egyptian monu-
perhaps one text in the Ugaritic alpha- ments). We turn first to inscriptions
betic cuneiform script (Greenstein1 976). from Phoeniciap roper.
In addition, there are some Phoenician
"
words in the Egyptian hieroglyphic and Byblos P:q .
hieratict exts as well as in some Akka- Ancient Gubla (biblicalG eba1 ,s ee 1 Kgs
dian texts and even in Mycenaeanl in- 5:22) lies near the modern Lebanese vil- ..~:i, :~~~~,P~PS I~ ~:i ,
ear B, the late second millennium Greek lage of Jebeila bout 25 miles northo f Bei-
in syllabic script from Mycenae. rut.G ublaw as known to classicala uthors .:(cid:127) ....::.:.:,f
as Byblos, from its brisk trade in Egypt-
ian papyrus (bybloisn Greek).E xcavations i?iP
The
Inscriptions there attest to the great antiquityo f the
There are thousands of Phoeniciani n- site. The firstu rban settlementw as in the
scriptions;t he CorpusI nscriptionumSe mit- Early Bronze Age. In addition to houses
icarum( CIS)a lone has 6058! However, and a wall around the Bronze Age city,
the geographic distribution of these in- the excavatorsu nearthedo n the same
(cid:127) ,(cid:127) .::i
scriptions is not uniform. There are site a series of temples which continue to
only about one hundred from Phoeni- the Roman period. At one point, the
cia proper and another hundred or so temple was dedicatedt o Bac latuG ubli
from Cyprus. The ancient city of Carth- 'the Lady of Byblos'.21
age in Tunisiap roduced thousands of The presence of small objects
texts,a nd severalh undredc ome from the and texts attests to Egyptian contact
rest of Tunisiaa nd WesternA lgeria. The going back to the Protodynastic
texts were generally found where they period and lasting,w ith some inter-
were made, but some have been trans- ruptions,22d own to Roman times. In '(cid:127)!(cid:127)(cid:127)': I(cid:127)(cid:127) ~ ?
ported to other places. A large funeral the Middle Bronze Age, Byblosi n- (cid:127)iiii(cid:127)
stela from North Africaw as taken to Avi- creased its interactionw ith the
gnon, France,a nd a small ivory box was Aegean region and extended trade
6 BiblicalA rchaeologis5t7 :1 (1994)
bas reliefs depicting a king participat- using new photographs, proposes the one, the latter beginning after and, for
ing in various royal functions.I t bore the reading given here.24 the most part, avoiding the earlier one.
following Phoeniciani nscription: The sarcophagus, with its inscrip- From the archaeological,a rt-historical,
tion, was originally dated by its archae- and paleographic arguments, one can
1S arcophagus which Ittobaalb in ological context to the 13th century BCE. surmise that the sarcophagus was pro-
Ahiram, King of Byblos, made for Dunand, in a postscript to his Byblia bably made in the 13th century and
Ahliramh, is father,w hen he put him Grammatal,o wered his date for the sar- inscribed with a Pseudo-hieroglyphic
in the tomb. 2 If a king among kings, cophagus to ca. 1000B CEbe cause of some inscription. Later,a round 1000 BCEI,t to-
or a governor among governors, or Iron age pottery discovered in the shaft baal reused the sarcophagus to bury his
an army commander should come of the tomb. Archaeological arguments father Ahiram and had a new inscrip-
up to Byblosa nd expose this sarcoph- have, however, been offered to support tion added to it.
agus, may the scepter of his rule be the earlier date by explaining the Iron Furtheru p the tomb shaft Montet
snatched away, may the throne of Age sherds as laterc ontamination( Hach- found a seemingly contemporary in-
his sovereignty be overturned, and mann 1967,P orada 1973:356-357,a nd cf. scription warning potential grave rob-
as for peace, may it flee from Byb- Garbini 1977b:81-85).25 bers: "' Beware! 2 Warning!T here is
los, and as for him, may his inscrip- Some have dated the inscriptioni tself disaster for you 3 here below!" If this in-
tion be erased before Byblos. on paleographic grounds to the first
half of the 10th century (Dunand 1945; The sarcophagus of Ahiram, king of
The stone where the last two words Albright1 947).M artin( 1961:70-75),h av-
Byblos (c. 1000 BaCw) ith the oldest continu-
of the inscription are carved is very ing reexamined the sarcophagus, dis- ous andr eadablPe hoeniciainns criptioonf any
rough, which has made the reading of covered on it a Pseudo-Hieroglyphic substantialel ngthi nciseda roundth e edge of
these words difficult.T eixidor( 1987:139), inscription that predates the Phoenician the lid.P hotograpbhyp ermissioonf Dare l-
MachreqP ublishers.
VF
Vt..
e- A.. v?. o-A q Al.
Al .. . .. .. M. -lc
AJV, ,?:
'Ile Nv- lew
41F
. .... .... v o ? ?Nll'.:e?
-C. vy am
.. . .. ...... 4 ?.
.
.... ... .. A-
ik
ull . . ........
q3
BiblicalA rchaeologis5t7 :1 (1994) 7
157) noted a similar use of and
sdq ydr
in the Ugaritic text KTU 1.14 I:12-13:
"he found his rightful (Qdqhw) ife, his
true (yfsrhs) pouse." Avishur (1976:7-8)
compares I Kgs 3:6 in which Solomon
OP. 0I( 5, (4J describes David's conduct before God:
. . . "...because [David] walked before( lpn)
. ?... . .... ..?... . . .... ., r . ? ' .... ..'.'."., . :? . : " : : .:. ::: : .: :.: yiynoo uuu .p"inr Ii gttr ihsut ttnhoe ,sb isn(e y rndiorghthe)otd ef o thhueasantr eDts ca(sos vndidcqe,h rt)on,a oinn, dg
ascended to the throne in a questionable
The inscription of "Shipitbaal, king of Byblos, son of Elibaalk, ingo f Byblos,s on of Yehi-
milk,k ingo f Byblos,"d edicatedt o BaalatB yblosc ommemoratingS hipitbaal'rse buildingo f a manner. The phrase "righteous king"
retainingw all for the acropoliso f Byblos.I tw as carvedi n a limestoneb lockw hich Dunand appears also in Yehawmilk'si nscription
found in 1935 among the remainso f the wall. Courtesoyf W Rdllig. (line 9; see below) and also denotes a
king whose legitimacy to the throne
may have been questioned.
Menander's Inscriptional Concurrent Absolute
kings of Tyre kings of Byblos Pharaohs dates Abibaal (KAI# 5), Elibaal (KAI# 6),
and Shipitbaal I (KAI #7)
Abibalus Abibaal Shoshenq1 ( 21y rs.) 945-924 BCE The next three inscriptions to be dis-
Hirom(3 4 yrs.) Ahiram cussed are intimately related to Yehi-
Balbaze(r1 7y rs.) Ittobaal
Abdastratu(s9 yrs.) Yehimilk milk by virtue of the fact that Shipitbaal
Methusastartus( 12 yrs.) Elibaal Osorkon1 ( 35 yrs.) 924-889 BCE in his inscription lists Elibaal as his
Astharymu(s9 yrs.) Shipitbaal father and Yehimilk as his grandfather:
1Wall which Shipitbaal,k ing of
2
Byblos, son of Elibaal,k ing of
scription is to be associated with that of or not. Ahiram was a common name; Byblos,
the sarcophagus,i t would seem that Itto- in fact, the name Hiram in the verse 3 son of Yehimilk, king of Byblos,
baal went to great lengths to insure that quoted at the opening of this articlei s a built for Baalat
no one else would do what he himself shortenedf orm of Ahiram.26T his Hiram 4 Byblos, his Lady. May Baalat
did, usurping the tomb for his own use. is listed as the king of Tyre during the Byblos lengthen
The two Old Phoeniciani nscriptions reigns of David and Solomon (2 Sam 5 the days of Shipitbaal and his
of the sarcophagus and the tomb shaft 5:11 and 1 Kgs 5:15 [Eng 5:1]),t hat is, in years over Byblos.
are the earliesti ntelligibleP hceniciani n- the first half of the 10th century BCEt,h e
scriptions of any length and are impor- period of our inscription,b ut any rela- The Abibaal text is inscribed on a
tant for paleography, the development tion with Ahiram of Byblos is doubtful. statue of Shoshenq I (BiblicalS hishak
of Phoeniciang rammar,a nd the history 945-924 BCE)28t he 22nd Dynasty
of Byblos. The two inscriptions use 20 Yehimilk (KAI# 4) pharaoh whose attack on Jerusalem is
out of the 22 Phoenicianc haractersa nd Yehimilk,a palimpsest written over an recordedi n 1 Kgs 14:25-26.29T he Elibaal
thus provide nearly a complete cata- earlier Pseudo-Hieroglyphic inscription text is carved on a statue of Osorkon I
logue of the alphabet. on a broken stone slab, is a dedicatory (924-889 BCE)T. hese last two texts are
As for the grammar,t he sarcophagus inscription in which Yehimilkd eclares restored on the basis of the Shipitbaal I
inscription shows that the Gt verb pat- that he has restored the ruins of the text, since they use the same formula
tern (thtspa nd thtpko f line 2)-which is temples of Byblos.27I n return he asks (though they dedicate their respective
found in the earlier Ugaritic language for a long life and reign over Byblos, statues rather than a wall-which Ship-
and in the Moabite language of the later "for he is a righteous( sdq)k ing and an itbaal rebuilt perhaps either as part of a
Mesha inscription,b ut not in Hebrew- upright (ydr)k ing before (Ipn)t he holy general restorationo f the acropolis or
was productivea t one point in the devel- gods of Byblos." Surprisingly,Y ehimilk in its continual maintenance).
opment of the Phoenicianl anguage; it provides no genealogy. This led Don- The large stone fragment on which
does not appear in the laterP hoenician ner and Rbllig (1973:7)t o wonder if he the Abibaal inscription is carved (not
inscriptions. had usurped the throne of Byblos. Gib- pictured here) was a seat on which the
With respect to the history of Syro- son (1982:17-19)s ees further support likeness of Shoshenq (which is missing)
Palestine, the inscription reveals at least for this in the line quoted above which was seated. Two largec artoucheso f
one rulero f Byblos and perhaps two, de- he translates "for [he is] the legitimate Shoshenqe mbellishedt he right face of
pending on whether Ahiram was a king and rightful king...." Albright (1947: this seat which also boasts the Abibaal
8 BiblicalA rchaeologis5t7 :1 (1994)