The Biblical Archaeologist - Vol.55, N.2

60 Pages·1992·14.43 MB·English

by  American Schools of Oriental Research

ical Arct aeoloist
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Perspectivoens theA ncienWt orlfdr omM esopotamtoia th eM editerraneanV ol.5 5 No.2 June1 992
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BiblicaAl rchaeol0ogist
Perspectiveso n the Ancient Worldf rom Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean Volume 55 Number 2
A Publication of the American Schools of Oriental Research June 1992
Bronze Age MediterraneanI sland Cultures and the Ancient 52
Near East, Part 1
A. BernardK napp
Intensive colonization of all the Mediterraneani slands began in earnest
at the end of the Neolithic and the beginning of the BronzeA ge (late
fourth-earlyt hird millennium B.C.E.)M. any factors helped determine
how these diverse societies could survive in a region with limited
agriculturalr esources.T he island cultures of Cyprus, Crete, Thera,
Rhodes and Sardiniaa re examined in their own social, economic and
political contexts as well as in a Near Easternc ontext.
Sepphoris, the Well Remembered City 74
Stuart S. Miller
Locateda bout three miles northeast of Jesus'h ometown of Nazareth is
the ancient city of Sepphoris,w hich was called the "ornamento f all
Galilee"b y the Jewishh istorian Josephus.S cholars have long been
intrigued by the impact that the city, which is not mentioned in the
New Testamentd espite its proximity to Nazareth, may have had on
Jesus'l ife.
The Challenge of Hellenism for Early Judaism and 84
Christianity
Eric M. Meyers
Hellenism is often viewed as a deliberate attempt to impose Greek
ways on local cultures. However,i t should not be viewed as a conflict or
clash between cultures, but as the intersection of Greek civilization
and languagew ith existing cultures. By the first century c.E., most
Near Easternc ultures had been deeply affected by Hellenism. How
were Judaisma nd Christianity able to maintain their own values and
culture in the face of this thriving world culture?
Qumran Update
The UnpublishedQ umranT extsf romC aves4 and 11 94
Emanual
To7bv
The unpublished Qumran texts from caves 4 and 11 that have not yet
appeared in the official series, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, are
listed, along with prospectivee ditors, preliminary publications and
miscellaneous information on the scrolls.
Introducingt he Authors 51
Book Reviews 105
Page5 2
On the cover. A marble sculpture of a harpist dated to approximately2 800 and 2600 B.c.E.
It is an example of the "canonical"s tyle of Early Cycladic sculpture. Photo courtesy of
The MetropolitanM useum of Art. RogersF und. 1947( 47. 100.1 1.
NIIEECCOEIA
IN IIOY
Editor:E phraim Stern,
Hebrew Universityo f Jerusalem
Assistant Editor: Ayelet Gilboa,
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
EditorialD irector: Joseph Aviram,
Israel Exploration Society
EditoriaBl oard:
Ofer Bar-Yosef, HarvardU niversity
Avraham Negev, Hebrew Universityo f Jerusalem
David Ussishkin, TelA viv University
EditoriaAl dvisors:
Nahman Avigad, Hebrew Universityo f Jerusalem
Abraham Biran, Hebrew Union College
Philip King, Boston College
Lawrence E. Stager, HarvardU niversity
Amnon Ben-Tor, Hebrew Universityo fJerusalem
alphabeticallya nd in four volumes,
Organized
this comprehensivew ork describesa nd analyzes
archaeologicale xcavationsi n the Holy Land, the area
that includes Israel,a ncient Palestine,a nd parts of Syria, Jordan,a nd the Sinai Peninsula.
Reviseda nd updated to reflectt he most recent archaeologicalf indings, TheN ew Encyclopedia
of ArchaeologicaEl xcavationsi n the Holy Land is a new edition of the classic in this field.
With more than 400 articles preparedb y more than 150 scholars from around the world, the
Encyclopediap resents a rich and extensiveb ody of archaeologicalm aterial.T he Encyclopedia
encompasses the latest archaeologicalf indings, and presents new evidence about the cultural
history of the region.
Lavishlyi llustratedw ith more than 2000 maps, plans, charts and drawings- in two-and four-
colors - the Encyclopediai s easily accessible both to scholars and general readers.I t is fully
cross-referenceda, nd includes bibliographiesf or each article, as well as a thorough index.
For anyone interestedi n the MiddleE ast, in biblical studies, and in the history of civilization,
TheN ew Encyclopediao f ArchaeologicaEl xcavationsi n the Holy Land is a real find.
* 4 volumes* c. 1600p ages * two-colort hroughout* 64 pages full-color
* c. 2000 illustrations* 9 x 12 * ISBN:0 -13-276288-9
$355.00 * Special Introductory Price: $295.00 * Fall 1992
SIMON & SCHUSTER
Questions?
Academic Reference Division
Call us at
15 Columbus Circle, 26th floor, New York, New York 10023
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Stuart S. Miller
Introducing
the Authors
StuartS .M illeri s AssociateP rofessoor f Hebrewa ndJ uda-
ic Studiesa t the Universityo f ConnecticutH. e earnedh is
Ph.D.i n NearE asternS tudiesa ndH istoryf romN ew York
Universityi n 1980.D r.M illeri s the authoro f Studiesi n
the Historya nd T7aditionos f Sepphoris( E.JB. rill, 1984)
anda numbero f othera rticleso n Sepphorias ndT almudic
studies.H e is also a contributort o the Encyclopediao f
Religion (Macmillan/FrePe ress). Dr. Miller is a staff
membera nd resourceo n Talmudich istoryt o the Joint
SepphorisP rojectw, hich is supportedb y the University
of ConnecticutH. e is presentlyw orkingo n a volumet en- A. BernardK napp
tativelyt itled RomanS epphorisT: heP eople.
A. BernardK nappis AustralianR esearchF ellowi n Cypri-
ot Archaeologyin the Schoolo f History,P hilosophya nd
Politicsa t MacquariUe niversityi n SydneyA, ustraliaD. r.
Knapph ase xcavatedin CyprusI, sraelJ, ordaann dE ngland,
and is directoro f the Sydney-CypruSsu rveyP roject.H e
receivedh is Ph.D.i n MediterraneaAn rchaeologyf rom
the Universityo f CaliforniaB, erkeleyH. e has published
moret han6 0 paperso n the archaeologyp,o liticale cono-
my ands ocial historyo f the Mediterraneaann da ncient
westernA sia, particularlyc oncerningC yprus.H e is co-
editor,w ith JohnF .C herryo, f the Journaol f Mediterra-
nean Archaeologya, nd GeneralE ditoro f a new series,
Monographisn MediterraneanA rchaeologyH. is latest
book,A rchaeologyA, nnalesa nd Ethnohistory(a ne dited
volume)h as just been publishedb y CambridgeU niver-
sity Press.
Eric M. Meyers
Besides serving as editor-in-chiefo f Biblical Archaeolo-
gist, EricM . Meyersis also the presidento f the American
Schoolso f OrientalR esearcha ndo n the facultya t Duke
University.H is term as directoro f the AnnenbergR e-
searchI nstitutei n Philadelphiae ndedo n June 1, 1992.
AmongD r.M eyers'ms anyp ublicationsa reh is latestv ol-
ume, Sepphorisc, owrittenw ith his wife, CarolM eyers,
and EhudN etzer (Eisenbrauns1 992),a nd Excavations
at the Ancient Synagogueo f Gush Halav (Eisenbrauns
1991)a, lso cowrittenw ith his wife.
Biblical Archaeologist, June 1992 51
4T
,'T
4.?
Iw
II'm
Bronze Age The foreign countries made a con- Along with the Minoans and
spiracy in their islands, and at once Phoenicians, the Sea Peoples are the
Mediterranean the lands were on the move, scattered best-known of a multitude of seafar-
in war. No county could stand before ing entrepreneurs,t raderso r raiders
Island Cultures their arms ... Their league was Plst, who stalked, exploited and made use
Tkr, Skis, Dnyn, Wss ... (Edgerton of the ancient Mediterraneana nd its
and the Ancient and Wilson 1936:5 3). resourcesd uringt he Bronzea nd Early
Iron Ages, from about 3000-1000
itht heswe ords,
Near East, Part 1 B.C.E.T heir fame or notoriety stems
Ramesses III-last from their mention in such well-
byA .B ernawlKnapp great pharaoho f an known ancient documentary evi-
Egyptians tate ex- dence as the contemporaryh iero-
tending back more than 2,000 years- glyphic and cuneiform records,o r
These reliefs- from the north wall of recordedi n part a majord emographic in the somewhat later Hebrew Bible
Ramesses IIIs Great Templea t Medinet movement that occurred throughout and Classical Greek literature. From
Habu- vividly illustrate the sea battle the eastern Mediterraneanw orld Sardiniai n the west through the
between the Sea Peoplesa nd the Egyptian
Naval Forces.T he Egyptians hips attempt to around 1200 B.C.ET. hose involved Aegean (Greece, Crete, Thera and
drive the invading fleet towards the shore, in this movement have come to be the other Cycladic islands and
where Egyptiana rchersh elp the oversized known as the Sea Peoples: their Rhodes) to Cyprus in the east, these
figureo f Ramesses to annihilate the enemy
The four Egyptiana nd nine Sea Peoples'ships origins and destinations are indis- Mediterraneani sland peoples are
illustrated are perhapss uggestive of a far putably within the Mediterranean, mentioned sporadically in the writ-
largere ngagement;b eneath the battle scene, but their motivations have been ten documents of the ancient Near
captive Sea Peoplesa re lead away in chains.
The Sea Peoples were undoubtedly of Medi- debated by generation after genera- East, from the third through the first
terraneano rigin, but scholars still debate tion of archaeologists, historians and millennia B.C.E.
precisely what impelled them on their migra- epigraphers.W hoevert hey were, and The purpose of this essay is to
tions, and eventually to wage a losing battle
against the Egyptians.T herec an be little whatever impelled them, the Sea situate the island cultures of Cyprus,
doubt, however, that their movements were Peoples were symptomatic of the Crete, Thera, Rhodes and Sardiniai n
symptomatic of the widespread economic widespreadc ultural and economic their own social, economic and poli-
collapse that occurreda t the end of the Bronze
Age, about 1200 B.C.Ei.n, the eastern Mediter- decline contemporaneous with their tical contexts as well as in a Near
ranean. Courtesyo f The Oriental Institute of migrations and maritime movements Easternc ontext. Close attention is
The Universityo f Chicago. (Sandars1 985). paid to island relations with the
52 Biblical Archaeologist, June 1992
.at
ii
always-changing,k aleidoscopic array This major, superbly built, reconstructed
of states and cultures that dominated theater was first built according to Greek
the Levantine( easternM editerranean) design in the late second century B.C.E.;i t
was enlarged during the second century c.E.,
seaboard- in Syria-Palestine,A nato- under Roman occupation, to the dimensions
lia and Egypt. First, it is necessary to in which it is preservedt oday. The Kourion
set the stage by considering Mediter- theater served both dramatic and religious
,, functions-played out against the stunning
ranean environment and culture in backdropo f the deep blue Mediterranean
general, and by discussing the con- * Sea-for the city's population. Such a land-
cept of insularity. With that back- scape- with reddish-browns oils, massive
blocks of local white limestone, and the
ground established, discussion turns vivid blue of the sea - could never be mis-
to the enormous gains made during taken for anything other than Mediterranean
the twentieth century, by archae- - in character.P hoto courtesy Alice Kingsnorth.
ology as well as epigraphy,i n our
understandingo f these island cul- . .. ,(cid:127) _i .-."(cid:127) .... 1980:3 ). FernandB raude(l 1972:1 08-
tures. By looking at the documentary 9), the renownedF renchh istorian
evidence relevant to, and arguments ." "i' .,'? ~ i)(cid:127)(cid:127) .(cid:127):.-- .-':(cid:127) who immortalizedth e Mediterranean
associated with, the identification of in his epic socio-geographisct udies,
such ethnic or geographict erms as MediterraneanE nvironment maintainedt hat this "(seai)n the
Alashiya, Abbiyawa, Kaphtor,K ef- andC limate midst of land"( whichi s what the
tiu and Shardanu, it is possible to With an area of 2.5 million square wordM editerraneamn eans)h as two
gain particulari nsight into island- kilometers, the Mediterraneani s the faces:a serieso f compact,m oun-
mainland contacts and relations. By largest inland sea in the world. Its tainousp eninsulasi nterspersedw ith
moving reciprocallyb ack and forth form would have been recognizable fertilep lains,a nda fragmentedc om-
between the documentary and ar- as long as five million years ago, plex of seas- the Aegean,I onian,
chaeological records- keeping each when the Atlantic Ocean flooded Adriatica ndT yrrhenian.
distinct at all times but placing one the land barriert hat had connected The Mediterraneahna s a dis-
in counterpoint to the other wherever modern-dayS pain and Morocco for tinctivec limaticp attern:s ummer
possible and appropriate - it is pos- the final time and filled the Mediter- droughtw, interr ainso f cyclonico ri-
sible, finally, to discuss the various ranean basin to one of several brims, gin, anda meana nnualt emperature
political ties, economic relationships which changed in tandem with ad- of 15 ? 5 degreesc elsius (Roberts
and cultural associations between vancing and retreatingg laciers. 1989:1 37).T his patterni s so well-
the major polities of the mainland The Mediterraneanm ay be visu- knownt hat it is used to describe
Near East and the dominant island alized as a peninsula in reverse,a n similarc limatesw orldwide( central
cultures and polities of the Bronze immense body of water surrounded Chile, SouthA frica,S outhA ustralia
Age Mediterranean. and nearly enclosed by land (Trump andC alifornia)A. Mediterranean
Lapithos
ToumbaT ou Sko LOs
" - - tlia
m
Cyprus
Kition
7Toodos Mountains * Hals Sultdn Tkke
GREECE C aavasos
PhlegreanI slands GRE ECE
md
TyrrheniaSne a 1, ANA I
Aeolian Islands Ionian Sea
sboA TO Cilicia
Lipari* 4>& Miletos
Sicily aaI PU0c00r .Pn0 6c o (?RhodCa ees a
1 erm?
Karpathos
SMediterranean Sea
SARDINIA
SerraI xi
o11 NlEdDaba
0 *N.. ori
climate is characterizedb y broadly helped conserve soil, which fore- Although our hominid (human-
similar plant formations, from stalled habitat degradation.G eneral- like) ancestors arrivedo n the shores
steppe-likeg rasslandst o sub-humic ly speaking, the mixed farming (agri- of the Mediterraneana s early as two
forests; it produces drought-resistant cultural, pastoral)s ystem typical of million years ago, recent evidence
flora, such as summer-only ever- the Bronze Age Mediterraneanw as indicates that permanent, intentional
greens, scrub or dry heath. Within small in scale, relatively constant in human colonization did not really
the circum-Mediterraneanw orld growth, and undeveloped in compari- begin until the seventh millennium
itself, typical trees included ever- son to ancient Near Easterns ystems. B.C.E(.N ote, however,t hat there are
green oak, pistachio, carob,o live and some tantalizing-but disputed-
an occasional date palm. Reddish Island Cultures and Insularity radiocarbond ates tentatively asso-
brown (terrar ossa) soils, set off by None of the [Mediterranean]i slands ciated with a human presence on Sar-
chalky white limestone and deep was assured of the future. The great dinia in the eleventh millennium
blue sea, vividly color the Mediter- problem for all [Mediterraneani s- B.C.Ea.n d on Cyprus in the ninth
raneanl andscape. lands]... was how to live off their millenniumB .C.E.;C herry 1990.)
Climatic and ecological variables own resources, off the soil, the or- Sardinia,C yprus and Crete (together
(such as forest cover,d ry vegetation) chards, the flocks, and if that was with Sicily and Corsica) are the larg-
and the nature of local geology affect not possible, to look outwards. All est Mediterraneani slands; their
the availability of water for plants or the islands ... were lands of hunger physical and biotic diversity enabled
humans, as well as the extent of land (Braudel 1972: 152). sizeable populations to live - and
degradation.B ecause the native, Despite its distinctive climate, eventually to thrive - in various re-
drought-resistantf lora help reduce flora, soils and stark landscapes, the gional habitats. These factors almost
soil erosion, climatic factors alone Mediterraneani s both a pluralistic certainly encouragedp ermanent hu-
could not have been responsible for and (in human terms) multicultural man settlement much earlier than
erosion or deposition: human settle- world. The lands that rim the Medi- was the case with smaller islands
ment, plant cultivation, and stock- terranean- from Gibraltart o the and island groups, like the Cyclades.
grazingh ave contributed much to the Levant- are home to a great variety More intensive colonization of all
stark landscape that characterizes of human cultures living in dra- the islands, large or small, occurred
most Mediterraneanc ountries today matic, and sometimes dramatically only at the end of the Neolithic and
(Roberts1 989:1 38).A suite of natural different, environments. The mod- the beginning of the Bronze Age (late
factors- thin soils, steep slopes, a erate climate and abundant plant, fourth-earlyt hirdm illennium B.C.E.;
vegetation vulnerable to fire, inten- animal and mineral resources ini- Cherry 1981:5 2), which is when this
sive and/oru npredictables easonal tially made Mediterraneanc oasts - survey of Mediterraneani sland cul-
rainfall- made Mediterraneane co- and some islands - attractive for tures begins.
systems highly vulnerable to human human settlement. In most cases, once an island has
impact (forG reece, see van Andel, In addition to climate and been settled, adaptation and survival
Zanggera nd Demitrack 1990). ecology, environmental and bio- become important foci of the inhabi-
This complex, dynamic pattern geographicalf actors- size, zonation, tants' daily lives. The isolation of
of cultural and environmental inter- topographicr elief, visibility and many islands, and the limitations
relations producedn ot only the con- accessibility-played a role in the posed by insular resources and envi-
temporaryM editerraneanl andscape first human colonization of islands. ronments, are two key attributes of
but also that of the BronzeA ge. Pollen In the Mediterranean,p roximity to
diagramsd ating to the third millen- the mainland was not the determin-
nium B.C.E.--the time when complex ing factor in colonizing an island,
societies began to emerge in the not least because other, intermediate 1o0o0
Mediterranean- clearly reveal vege- islands often served as "stepping 0
tation disturbance (Roberts1 989: stones"( Cyprusi s an exception).
S
141).W ithin the Aegean and eastern Early sea travel, furthermore,p ro- a WestM editerranean
Mediterranean,w heat, lentils and, ceeded on the principle of hugging
Mediterranean
perhaps,o lives and carobs were cul- coastlines, mainland or insular, 25 S--East
M i
tivated, and several varieties of fruits which further reduced the effects of
U
(figs,g rapes)a nd nuts (almonds, pis- distance. Clusters of islands, which 7 6 5s 4 3 2
tachios) were exploited. One positive provideda ccessibility to diverse Millennium RB.C.E.
result of these complex cultural- resources, may also have enhanced
environmental relations was that opportunities for island colonization The chronologicalp atterns of island occupa-
tion in the East and WestM editerranean.
terracedv ineyards and olive groves (Cherry 49; Held 1989b:6 6-78).
1981"
54 Biblical Archaeologist, June 1992
islandl ife.T hee xtentt o whichi sland
residentsa rea blet o maintaine xter-
nal links of anys ort significantlya f-
fects social,e conomica ndc ultural
developmentos verallS. mall,i solated
groupsh avet roublem aintainingv i-
ablep opulationa nds ubsistencel ev-
els without importingp artnersf,o od
or evenw ater.S omei slands ocieties,
pasta ndp resent,s howa tendency
4,
toward" abnormacl"u lturald evelop- ,
ment:l imitedp opulations ize and
limitedc ontactsi nevitablyr esulti n
cultural- as well as genetic- trait
differences(C herry1 981:6 1-62, Dbeeapriecrtisoa nres coaf rtrryibinugtea a vnadr itertiyb ouft fei nbee,a Areergsei na n7-btympbep 1o6t2te (Krye (nrahmytuan-i)na ct lTuhdeinbge ss. oTmhee tirni btuhtee f orm
with furtherr eferences). of a bull's iars, pithoi, "Vapheioc"u ps, pedestalled bowls) and metal goods
WhileM editerraneains landso f (vessels, a hdeaagdg-e-r",os txihrriduep i"n gots).
all shapesa nds izes formeda coherent
humane nvironmentt,h ey also ex- Byd efinition,t hen, islandsa re and the circulation of socially or
periencedc ertainp ressuresl,i mita- isolateda ndc onfined,b ut insularity economically valued goods could be,
tions andb enefitsb ecauseo f their is not simplya geographicc uriosity and often were, tightly controlled.
insularityT. he archaeologicarle cord that directlye xplainsc ulturald iver- The powerr elations thus formedw ere
of all largeM editerraneains lands sity or biologicale volution.M any readily accentuated in an insular
(especiallyC yprusC, retea ndS ar- principleso f insularityf, urthermore, context (Patton 1991:4 0).
dinia)a ndo f manys mallero nes (in- applyt o some degreei n all natural If some islands, especially those
cludingR hodesa ndT hera)i s not habitats,a ndi n a varietyo f cultural of volcanic origin, enjoyed a special
only diversea ndc omplex,b ut very situationsd: eserto asesa ndm ountain importance because of the raw mate-
differentf romm ainlandr ecordso f villagesa ree cologicallyr estricted rials they contained, others came
similart ype andd ate.C onditionsf or andm ayb e culturallyi solated;" pro- into prominence because they were
farmingi n mainlande nvironments vincial"a ttitudesu suallyr esultf rom strategically located-whether as
arem oref avorablteh ant hose on culturals egregationI.n sularityp oses stepping-stones to other islands and
islands,w hile an island'sl imited specialr estraintsa ndo fferss pecial mainland coasts, or as convenient
numbero f species( inb oth plants opportunitiesi;t demandsr isks,p ro- stopovers for merchants and seamen
anda nimals)p recludesa "broad vides benefitsa ndm aya lso modify involved in long-distance trade. Such
spectrumo"f subsistencep ursuits cultural,p oliticalo r economicd e- islands might have retained their
(fishingi s an importante xception). velopmentsin unique,a nds ometimes status long after demand for certain
On a mainlandf, urthermoree,n vi- predictablew, ays.T he entireh istory resources dried up, or when the loca-
ronmentaol r social catastrophes of shippinga ndc ommercei n the tion and direction of regional trade
mayb e divertedo r diminishedb y Mediterraneanfo, re xample,f rom shifted. External links-whether in
relocatingp eopleo r redistributing the thirdm illenniumB .C.E.t o the the form of barter,t rade, social con-
fooda ndo therr esourcesI.n a n insular earlyt wentiethc enturyC .E.h, as re- tacts or outsiders seeking direct
setting,s imilark indso f catastrophic sulted- on the one hand- fromt he access to island resources- helped
situationsm ayw ipe out the entire interplayo f geographica nd resource to reduce the risks and allay the
populationp, articularlyif subsis- diversity( coppero n Cyprusa ndS ar- shortages associated with island life.
tence diversity or the means of sea dinia;o bsidiano n Melosa ndL ipari; But these links necessitated certain
transport are lacking. Disaster, marbleo n Naxosa ndP aros)a, ndo n social conditions (e.g. kin-based rela-
whether economic or environmen- the otherh andf roms uch cultural, tions; alliance networks)o r economic
tal, often results directly from con- economico r ideologicalf actorsa s realities (e.g. surplus products avail-
straints on space, limitations on shipbuildingte chnology;t he mind- able for exchange).D uring the Bronze
resources, restricted ecological and sets of ancienta ndr ecente ntrepre- Age and in later, historical periods,
biological diversity, and shortfalls in neurs,m erchantsa ndr aidersa; nd overseas contacts often led to foreign
subsistence food production-all the accessibilityo f islandd wellers domination and the unbridled ex-
part of what biogeographers define to largeri,n terregionasly stemso f ploitation of insular resources, either
as the "boundary effect" (Cherry productiona ndt rade.T he use of for export or to sustain transplanted
1981:5 9-60). boats,t he knowledgeo f navigation, merchant or military communities.
Biblical Archaeologist, June 1992 55
Whereas foodstuffs occasionally sis - must have existed from the ear- ment and protection; because it
served as commodities in their own liest colonization of the Mediter- brings together the most far-removed
rights, raw materials, essential goods ranean islands. Yet the degree of lands and gives to sailors unhin-
and luxury items made up the more "openness,"c ultural or ecological, dered intercourse; through them it
common items of Mediterranean certainly fluctuated through time. furnishes to us the history of what
interisland trade. Nonetheless, over- The openness of an island system to was previously unknown; it provides
exploitation of resources affected external influences, and the adapt- the fortune of the merchant abroad;
islands large and small, whose popu- ability of island residents, of course, it improves easily the needs of life,
lations normally stayed well within are always affected by the human allowing the well endowed to export
the carryingc apacity of the land. (cultural)f actor.T he material evi- their excess, and to the poor it fur-
Althoughb iogeographica nalogies dence - archaeological and textual - nishes amendment of what they
may be misleading if overemphasized, allows assessment of that cultural lack (Saint Basil of Caesarea, trans-
it is important to examine socio- factor and consideration of these lated by Giet 1968: 274-75).
cultural developments within and propositions in more detail. The earliest (Neolithic) coloni-
beyonds everalM editerraneani slands zations of the Mediterraneani slands
in light of various attributes and MediterraneanI sland Polities and are beyond the chronological limits
processes associated with coloniza- Economies: The Material Evidence of this study. Nonetheless, it should
tion and insularity (Terrell1 986; The sea is the great culture bearer. be noted that the study of these
Held 1989b):d ispersal, adaptation The civilization that originated in colonizations is a significant growth
and survival, and extinction; isola- the eastern Mediterranean was not area in Mediterraneana rchaeology
tion, limitations, and opportunities; transmitted by hordes in search of (particularlyw ith respect to Sar-
abnormald evelopment; social fusion new pasture lands or by armies on dinia, Cyprus and Crete - Sondaar
and fission; cooperation and compe- the march, but by seafarers. Con- and Sanges 1992). By the beginning
tition; technology and trade. In sidering the function of navigation of the EarlyB ronze Age, about 3000
adopting such an approach,i t must in the western spread of culture, it is B.C.E., all of the islandsd iscussed
be born in mind that the mechanisms astonishing how little has, as yet, here had been settled for at least the
of island colonizations, constraints been found out about this aspect of better part of a millennium (in the
and contacts are conditioned by re- history (Frost 1970: 55). case of Cyprus, Crete and Sardinia,
gional and local factors and must be The sea is beautiful in the eyes several millennia). Ford iffering rea-
examined in specific contexts. Some of God, especially, because it sur- sons, the cultural sequences on Cy-
sort of overseas communication and rounds the islands of which it is at prus and Crete are better known than
exchange- on a very restricted ba- one and the same time the adorn- those on Sardinia,R hodes and Thera.
Unlike the situation in mainland
Mesopotamia, Syria (Ebla)a nd Egypt,
ChronologicalG uide- Cyprus,t he Aegean,S ardinia knowledge of island developments
during the third millennium B.C.E.i s
Cyprus Crete/Thera/Rhodes Sardinia based solely on archaeological evi-
(EarlyB ronzeA ge- EBA) dence. Not until the Middle Bronze
Prehistoric Bronze Age 1 Pre-Palatial CopperA ge/EBA Age (about 2000-1600 B.C.E.)a nd es-
2500/2400-2000/1900 B.C.E. 3000-2000/1950 B.C.E. 2800-1800 B.C.E. pecially the Late Bronze Age (about
1600-1200/1100 does docu-
B.C.E.)
(Middle Bronze Age-MBA) mentary evidence help in the inter-
Prehistoric Bronze Age 2 Old Palatial Proto-Nuragic pretation of cultural continuity,
2000/1900-1700 B.C.E. 1950-1700 B.C.E. 1800-1500 B.C.E. change and interconnections within
the Mediterraneani slands, and be-
(MBA-LBA'I ransition) tween those islands and the western
Protohistoric Bronze Age 1 New Palatial Nuragic 1 Asiatic mainland.
1700-1400 B.C.E. 1700-1400 B.C.E. 1500-1250 B.C.E. Because the chronology of the
Mediterraneani slands during the
(LateB ronze Age-LBA) third millennium B.C.E. is, at best,
Protohistoric Bronze Age 2 Post-Palatial Nuragic 2 vague, cultural sequences - and the
1400-1200 B.C.E. 1400-1200 B.C.E. 1250-900 B.C.E. political, economic or social pro-
cesses associated with them-can
Protohistoric Bronze Age 3 Sub-Minoan/Mycenaean Nuragic 3
1200-1000 B.C.E. 1200-1000 B.C.E. 900-500 B.C.E. only be presented in broadt erms;
direct cause and effect are difficult
56 Biblical Archaeologist, June 1992