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65 Pages·1991·22.15 MB·English
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AMERICASNC HOOLS Biblical Arc1faeologast OF ORIENTARLE SEMCH P.O . BOXH .M., DUKES TATION ADMINISTRATIVOE FFICE DURHAM,N C 27706 1919)6 84-3075 ASOR,7 11 WEST4 0TH STREET SUITE3 54, BALTIMOREM, D 21211 Biblical Archaeologist IISSN0 006-0895)i s publishedq uarterly 1301)8 89-1383 lMarch,l une, September,D ecember)b y The lohns Hopkins UniversityP ress for the AmericanS chools of Oriental Research IASOR)a, nonprofit,n onsectariane ducationalo rganization with administrativeo ffices at 711 West4 0th Street, Suite 354, Baltimore,M D 21211. Subscriptions:A nnual subscriptionr atesa re S19.95f or indi- viduals and S33 for institutions. There is a special annual rate of S17.95f or students and retirees.S ingle issues are S7 for indi- viduals and S10 for institutions. In foreignc ountries, add S8.50 for annual subscriptionsa nd S2 for single issues. Orderss hould Eric M. Meyers,P resident be sent to The lohns Hopkins University Press,7 01 West4 0th lames W.F lanaganF, irst Vice Presidentf or Publications Street,S uite 275, Baltimore,M D 212111telephone3: 01-338-6964; WalterE . Rast,S econd ViceP residentf orArchaeological Policy telex: 5101012198l, HU Pressl nls). Gough W.T hompson, lr., Chairmano f the Boardo f 7Eustees RobertH . lohnston, Vice Chairmano f the Boardo f 7Fustees Postmaster:S end addressc hanges to Biblical Archaeologist, Paul F.l acobs, ViceP residentf or the Corporation The lohns Hopkins University Press,7 01 West4 0th Street, LydieS hufro,V ice Presidentf or Development Suite 275, Baltimore,M D 21211.S econd-classp ostagep aida t GeorgeM . Landes,S ecretary Baltimore,M D 21211a nd additionalo ffices. RogerS . BoraasA, ssistant Secretary Holden Gibbs, 7Eeasurer Copyright° 1991b y the AmericanS chools of OrientalR esearch. KateG ould Assistant 7Eeasurer StephenW i;helm,E xecutiveD irector All rightsr eserved.N o portiono f this joumal may be reproduced MarkG allagherA, dministrativeD irector by any processo r technique without the formalc onsent of the AmericanS chools of Oriental Researcha nd The lohns Hopkins University Press.A uthorizationt o photocopyi tems for personal ASORN ewsletter;V ictor H. Matthewsa nd or intemal use is grantedf or librariesa nd other users registered lames C. Moyer,E ditors with the CopyrightC learanceC enter lCCC)T ransactional BiblicalA rchaeologist;E ricM . Meyers,E ditor ReportingS ervice, prouridetdh at the copier pay the base fee of Bulletin of the AmericanS chools of Oriental Research; S1.00p er copy plus S.10 per paged irectly to CCC, 27 Congress lames W.F lanagan,E ditor Street,S alem, MA 01970.T his consent does not extend to other lournalo f CuneiformS tudies;E rleL eichty,E ditor kinds of copying,s uch as copyingf or generald istribution,f or Editorf or Books, WalterE . Aufrecht advertisingo r promotionalp urposes,f or creatingn ew collective works,o r for resale. 0006-8095/S87S 1.00 + .10 W.F .A lbrightI nstitute of ArchaeologicalR esearch( AIAR) P.O . Box 19096,9 1 190 lerusalem,I srael. Editor in Chief EricM . Meyers SeymourG itin, Director Associate Editor LawrenceT . Geraty loe D. Seger,P esident Associatc Editor David C. Hopkins Carol Meyers,F i st Vice President Book Review Editor 1amesC . Moyer loy Ungerleider-MayersonS,e cond Vice P esident; Senior Editor ToddM cGee Acting BoardC hair Consulting Editor Leslie Watkins JohnS pencer,S ecretary-Deasurer Assistant Editor StephenG oranson Designer LauraH ughes BaghdadC ommittee for the BaghdadS chool lerroldS . Cooper,C hairman EditorialC ommittec Near EasternS tudies WalterE . Aufrecht A. T. Kraabel 1ackS asson The lohns Hopkins University EdwardF .C ampbell Thomas E. Levy Neil A. Silberman Baltimore,M D 21218 Douglas L. Esse P.K yleM cCarter MarkS . Smith VolkmarF ritz David W.M cCreery StuartS winy AmericanC entero f OrientalR esearch( ACOR) SeymourG itin Carol L. Mcycrs L. Michael White P.O . Box2 470, lebel Amman, Amman, lordan. lo Ann Hackett S. Thomas Parker Bertd e Vries,D i ector Advertising:C orrespondences hould be addressedt o The 1ohns RobertC oughenour,P resident Hopkins University Press,7 01 West4 0th Street,S uite 275, LawrenceT . Geraty,V ice President Baltimore,M D 21211 ltelephone:3 01-3384982). MariorieC ooke, Secretary Anne Ogilvy,D easurer Biblical Archaeologist is not responsiblef or errorsi n copy pre- paredb y the advertiserT. he editor reservest he right to refuse CyprusA mericanA rchaeologicalR esearchI nstitute {CAARI) any ad. Ads for the sale of antiquities will not be accepted. 41 King PaulS treet,N icosia, Cyprus. StuartS winy,D irector EditorialC omspondence: Article proposals,m anuscriptsa nd CharlesU . Harris,P resident editorialc orrespondences hould be sent to the ASORP ublica- LydieS hufro,V ice President tions Office, P.O.B oxH .M., Duke Station, Durham,N C 27706. Ellen Herscher,S ecretary Unsolicited manuscriptsm ust be accompaniedb y a self- AndrewO liver,l r., Tteasurer addressed,s tampede nvelope.F oreignc ontributorss hould fumish internationalr eplyc oupons. ASORA ncient ManuscriptsC ommittee amesC VanderKamC hairman Manuscriptsm ust conformt o the formatu sed in Biblical Departmento f Phiiosophya nd Religion Archaeologist, with full bibliographicr eferencesa nda minimum of endnotes.S ee recent issues for examples of the propers tyle. North CarolinaS tate University Manuscriptsm ust also include appropriateil lustrationsa nd Raleigh,N C 27695-810^3 legends.A uthorsa re responsiblef or obtainingp ermission to use illustrations. Damascus Committee Giorgio Buccellati, Chairman Composition by LiberatedT ypes,L td.,D urham,N C. Center for MesopotamianS tudies Printedb y PBMG raphics,I nc., Raleigh,N C. 405 HilgardA ve. Los Angeles, CA 90024 Publisher.T he 1ohnsH opkins UniversityP ress BiblicaAl rchaeologist A Publicationo f the AmericanS choolso f OrientalR esearch Volume5 4 Number1 March1 991 WomenZMso numentaMl arko n AncientE gypt 4 ^ _ Page4 Barbara S. Lesko _ Egypt'sr oyalw omen left manyr eminderso f their lives, includingg randt em- _ ples,t ombsa ndc olossals tatues.B utc ommonw omena lso left a monumental mark.T his insufficiently-studiedle gacyc onsists of tomb chapelsw ith extensivew all decoration,p ortraits tatues,f unerarya nd votives telae, and offeringt ables,a ll bearingt he names andt itles of their ownerso r dedicators. I OfD rumsa ndD amselsW: omen'Ps erformancine AncientI srael 16 , Carol L. Meyers 4 The mention of drummerst odayu sually conjuresu p imageso f male musi- cians. Certainlyf emalep ercussionistse xist, but whetherf or rockc ombos or symphonyo rchestrasw, e tend to think of men, not women,w ith drum- sticks in hand.H as it alwaysb een this way?I s it that way in other cultures? The Locationo f the HolyH ouseo f Herod'lsb mple: 28 __ Evidencefr omt he Post-DestructioPne riod Lawrence D. Sporty The precisel ocation of the holy house of Herod'sT empleh as been widely discusseda nd disputedd uringt he past century.P revailingc urrento pinion holds that the holy house was locatedw heret he Dome of the Rockn ow Pa 16 stands.E videncef romt he perioda ftert he Romansd estroyedt he temple in ge 70 C.E. suggestsa location to the north. _e_ __ ArchaeologicaElv idenceo f MilitaryO perationisn SouthernJ udah 36 __ duringt he EarlyH ellenisticP eriod _g1_ tohn W Betlyon __ A greatd eal is knowno f the LateH ellenistic period1 198t o 63 B.C.E.)w hen __ the Hasmoneansr uledJ erusalema ndw hen Pompeya ssertedR ome'sc laim to Jewishl ands.B ut what happenedi n these lands just beforea nd aftert he __ armieso f Alexandert he Greatl aid siege to villages and towns that daredt o __ standi n their way? _ Surveyo f the DeadS eaS crollsF ragmentasn dP hotographs 44 _ at the RockefelleMr useum | Stephen A. Reed .. |k While the Dead Sea Scrollsh avep rovidedm uch new informationi n the _ = ? J areaso f the text and canon of the Biblea nd the historyo f earlyJ udaisma nd _ L S Christianity,t heir publicationa ndo ngoings tudyh aveb een severelyh andi- cappedb ecausea comprehensivein ventoryo f all texts andp hotographos f Page3 6 the scrolls has neverb een made. Such an inventoryi s now in progress. From the Editor's Desk 3 Arti-FACTS:N ews, Notes, and Reports from the Institutes 52 Qumran Update 54 Introducing the Authors 2 Book Reviews 55 On the cover:A sculpturedp ortraito f Amenirdis I, who shared rule for at least 13 years during the Twenty-fifthD ynasty. Photo courtesy of the oslyn Art Museum in Omaha, Nebraska. Lawrence D. Sporty StephenA . Reed tohn W Betlyon Carol L. Meyers BarbaraS . Lesko Introducing the Authors BarbaraS . Leskoi s a ResearchA ssistanti n the Depart- stationed in the Saudi desert. He participatedi n the mento f Egyptologya tB rownU niversityS. her eceivedh er excavationo f Telle l-Hesii n the summerso f 1973,1 979, bachelor'sa nd master'sd egreesf romt he Departmento f 1981 and 1983 as a volunteer,s quares upervisora nd OrientalL anguageasn dC ivilizationsa t the Universityo f administratorD. r. Betlyon has also dug at Idalion in ChicagoH. erl ong-timec ommitmentt o womeSsh istory Cyprusa nd has workedo n coins from severalA SOR- is reflectedi n her book, The Remarkable Women of relatede xcavationisn Tunisiaa ndJ ordanH. e receivedh is Ancient Egypt (1987,P rovidenceR, I:B .C.S cribeP ublica- Ph.D.f rom HarvardU niversitya nd for eight yearsw as tions), and in the volume she edited, Women's Earliest Chaplaina nd AssociateP rofessoro f Religiona t Smith Records: From Ancient Egypt and Western Asia (1989, Collegei n NorthhamptonM, assachusetts. Atlanta:S cholarsP ress).S he and her husband,E gyptol- ogist LeonardH . Lesko,a re collaboratinge ditors of A StephenA . Reedi s presentlys ervinga s Cataloguera t the Dictionary of Late Egyptian, now in five volumes. AncientB iblicalM anuscripCt enter( ABMC)A. s a Dorot Fellowi n 1989 he resideda t the AlbrightI nstitute in LawrenceD . Sportyi s AttendingP sychiatrisat ndS enior Jerusalema ndc ataloguedth e DeadS eaS crolls( DSSf)r ag- Lectureri n the Departmento f Psychiatrya nd Human ments and photographas t the RoclrefelleMr useum.A t Behaviora t the Universityo f Californiaa t Irvine.H e has the SBL/AARm eetingi n New Orleansh e gavea report long been interestedi n the use of symbolsa s a meanso f on the DSSi nventoryp rojecta t ABMCD. r.R eedr eceived culturale xpressions, temmingi n largem easuref romh is his Ph.D.a t ClaremonGt raduatSe chool.H e has serveda s worka s a psychiatrista ndp sychotherapistD. r. Sporty's an adjunctp rofessora t AzusaP acificU niversitya nda s a currentr esearchc oncernst he originso f contemporary lecturera t CaliforniaS tateU niversitya t LongB each. Westernp sychotherapHy.e hash ada long-standinign ter- est in the inter-relationshiopf spiritualityr, eligiona nd emotionalh ealth. His interesti n the SecondT emplei n CarolL . Meyersi s Professoro f Religiona ndi s activei n particulars tems fromt he profoundim pactt he Temple's the Women'Ss tudiesp rograma t DukeU niversityS. hei s destructionh as had on the subsequente volutiono f the alsoa Codirectoro f the JointS epphoriPs rojecta, s well as three great contemporaryr eligions of Judaism,C hris- First Vice Presidento f the W. F. AlbrightI nstitute of tianity andI slam. ArchaeologicalR esearch.S he has excavatedf or more than 20 yearsa t sites in Israela nd North America.H er Aftera careeri n academiaJ, ohnW .B etlyoni s now serv- most recent book, Discovering Eve: Ancient Israelite ing in the U.S. Armya s Chaplaint o the 2nd Battalion, Women in Context (1988lw as publishedb y OxfordU ni- 69th Armor, Fort Benning,G eorgia and is currently versityP ress. 2 BiblicalArchaeologist, March 1991 From the Editor Desk 's It is impossiblet o publisht his issue of Biblical Archae- todayi n dangerb ecauseo f the Gulf Warc, an provideu s with ologist withouts harings omeo f myt houghtso n the Gulf powerfusl ymbolso f religioust raditionst,e chnicala nda esthe- Wara ndi ts impacto n NearE asterns cholarshipa ndt he tic achievementst hat can compel contemporaryh umanst o archaeologoyf the region.A s presidento f the American reflecto n the importanceo f historya ndp ropelt hem to ensure Schoolso f OrientaRl esearchIA SORI) ,a ma lsoa cutelya wareo f a betterf uture.A ll of us, thereforea, t ASORj oinw ith men and the peril of our overseasr esearchc enters,w hich find them- womene verywherein prayingf or a peacet hat will last and a selvess ituatedi n positionso f hostility,d angera ndu ncertainty. futuret hate nablesa ll ofu s to participatoen cea gaini n theg lory As of this writing,t heA mericanC entero f OrientaRl esearchin of ourN earE asternh eritage. Amman,J ordanh as temporarilys uspendedo perationsu ntil thep oliticals ituationbecomecsl earert,h eA lbrighIt nstituteo f The forcedr esignationo f JohnS trugnella s editor-in-chief ArchaeologicaRl esearchin Jerusalemis operatingo n a limited of theD eadS eaS crollsp ublicationte ams houldn otb e the occa- basis,a ndt he CyprusA mericanA rchaeologicaRl esearchIn sti- sion for any joy in academeU. ndoubtedlyo ne of the threeo r tute is movingi nto new quartersin Nicosia as discretelya s fourm ost knowledgeablsec holarsi n the field,s eriousm ental possible.I t is not a goodt ime forA mericansa ndw esternersin illness and a chronicd rinkingp roblemf inallyg ot the best of the regiona ndA SORA. s a societyd evotedt o researchin to the him. Wem ayn everk noww hethero rn ot his unfortunatein ter- languagesa ndl iteratureso f the regiona ndt o the studyo f the viewi n the November9 issueo f the Israelin ewspapeHr a'aretz, culturalh eritageo f that area,e speciallyi ts rich heritageo f in whichh e madev ariousa nti-Semiticr emarksw, asi nfluenced archaeologicatlr easuresw, e must alreadyb egin the task of by these factors.I n any case, his remarksc, ombinedw ith his discoveringw ayso f continuingt hatw orka ftert he ware nds. deterioratinhge alth,c ompromisedh is abilityt o leadt he inter- We in ASORa re concernedf or the wellbeingo f archae- nationalt eams tudyingt he scrolls,w hicha rea nu nprecedented ologicals ites, as well as the museumsa ndl ibrariest hat arei n sourceo f informationo n earlyJ udaisma ndC hristiano rigins. dangera lso. Howevert, he loss of human life, on all sides, Rathert hand wellingo n recriminationsit, is time to turn remainso ur overridingc oncern.L et me expressm y personal our attention to facilitatingp ublicationo f the remaining hopet hat when this ware nds manyo f us who havew orkeds o scrolls. ASOR is presentlya rticulatinga policy on greater harda nds o longt o uncovert he glorieso f the pastw ill havet he access to these documentst hat would be recommendedfo r opportunityto worka gainw ith all the peopleso f the region considerationto the internationaCl ave4 editoriatl eama ndt he who haved edicatedth emselvest o that task. IsraelA ntiquitiesA uthorityI IAA)I. am hopeful,a ndh aves o To that end, I have appointeda n ASORT ask Forcet o recommendedt o ASOR'sA ncient ManuscriptsC ommittee, explorew ays of fulfillingo ur historic mission of promoting thatw ithin monthss ucha policyw ill be adoptedb yA SORa nd researcha ndc onductingfi eldw orki n view of the dramatically otheri nfluentiall earnedb odies.I n this issue, StephenA . Reed changedc ircumstancetsh at nowp revaili n the regiona ndt hat of the AncientB iblicalM anuscripCt enteri n ClaremontC, ali- surelyw ill be theref ors omet ime to come.I nt hinkingt hrough fornia,d escribesh is worko n a detailedc atalogueo f the scroll ourf uturer ole,t he changedp oliticall andscapec annotd eteru s fragmentfsr omQ umranw, hichw ill greatlya ssisti n the study froml ookingt o the diversec ulturalh eritageo f the regiona s it of the unpublishedsc rolls. existed in formert imes, from the prehistoricp eriodst o the TheI AAa ndt he Cave4 editoriatle amh avet akenm easures moderne ra;A SORm ust continuet o do what we haveb een of late to hasten the publicationp rocess.T he IAA named doingf orn earlya centurya ndw e must redoubleo ure ffortst o EmanueTl ovo f the HebrewU niversityo f Jerusalemt,o replace do it effectively. Strugnella s the editor-in- Therei s perhapsa silverl ining in the darkc loudso f war chief of the project,w hile _ hoveringo vert he MiddleE ast;a t no time in historyh as the the Cave 4 team named _ public been as interestedi n or as hungryf or information Tov, Emile Puech of the _ pertainingto the ancientc ultureso f the NearE asta s todayA. s Ecole Bibliquei n Jerusa- . _ a resulto f this enormousin terestB, A andA SORh avea no bliga- lem and EugeneU lrich of ^ _ tion to meett hosen eedsb yu pgradintgh e levelo f its publishing Notre Dame as the three , _ andb y communicatinbg ettert o the generapl ublic,w hetheri n generale ditors of the in- X _ the printm ediao r television.I encouragee acho f ourr eadertso ternationalt eam. Fort he referp eoplet o backi ssueso fB A ort he Bulletin of the American latest informationo n the _ Schools of Oriental Research, andI also encouragein dividuals unpublishefdr agmentasn d _ to be in touchw ithA SOR'lse adershipw, hichl iterallyc oversa ll newsf romt he committees _ - the areaso f the modernM iddleE ast. involved,s ee the Qumran < _ Eachi ssueo f BiblicalArchaeologist is a kindo f microcosm Update section in this i of the ancientw orlda t a givenm omento r momentsi n time. issue. The kinds of disputesa nd debatest hat affectedt he past can Eric M. Meyers providea helpfulp erspectiveo n presentr ealitiesa nd current Editor-in-Chief events.T he materialc ulturet hat was createdi n formert imes, and President of ASOR BiblicalA rchaeologistM, arch1 991 3 _|--P 9 uanErsevwuene aitntllhyl uy s ufeamgilnrflyaia g lceue tr oemps owbar ontrrdspakc ryeeoernmdse si - Womeas Monumental Mark on Grand templesa ndt ombs chronologicacl hart}o ffert he rare andc olossals tatuesb ear opportunityto look at a society manyr eminderosfE gypt's Ancient goinga bouti ts business,n ot just aIlcienqt ueensa ndf e- religiousa ndf uneraryr ites but malep haraohbs,u te venc ommon Egypt agriculturalh, untinga nde conomic womenl efta monumentaml ark. pursuitsa s well as entertainment Thisl egacyc onsistso f tombc hapels ands ports.T he svelte,a ttractively by BarbaraSL. esko withe xtensivew alld ecorationp,o r- groomeds nd fetchinglyg arbed traits tatuesf,u nerary Egyptianw oman andv otives telae,a nd _ _ cuts a strikingf igure offeringta blesa, ll _ in almosta ll scenes. bearintgh en amesa nd titleso f theiro wners _== ord edicator(se ven - thoseo f theirn earest _ g 1\X dignity.T he wife relativesT). hisc orpus _b i,jx of the tomb owner notw ellp ublished _a iS andi s littles tudied, _ a buth ass urvivedin = as her husband's unbelievabqleu anti- E ! RR _ companiona nds up- ties,o ftenb ecause ! Ei porterI. n Old King- theseo bjectsw ere s |sMi dom scenes children madeo f stone.P ubli- 1sX1 andr etainersa re cationa nda nalysiso f al typicallyr enderedo n thesem onumenths as ! | a much smallers cale. unfortunatenlyo t _ I Whenv iewing keptp acew itht heir tombw alls,i t is easy discoveriesso,t hei nformatiognle aned Evenf emalew orkersw ereu suallyportrayed to fall into the traps et by the an- fromt hemt husf arw ill be subjectto with dignitya ndg zace,s ucha s thesef emale cient artisticp erspectivew, here correctiono,r e nhancemenat,s more farmworkerdse coratingth e FifthD ynasty figurest hat arem eantt o be shown tombo f Ti at SakkaraD. rawingb y Leonard sourcem aterialbs ecomea vailable. H. Lesko. seateds ide by side appeart o be sit- Althoughth erei s no firma gree- ting behindo ne anotherB. ecause menta mongE gyptologisotnst hec ivil the wife is most oftend epicteda s rightsa nde conomicle velso f the dif- the survivora ndm ourners, he is ferentc lassesi n ancientE gyptiasno - WhatX mb ArtR eveals oftenp ortrayeda s supportingo r ciety-or, indeedh, owt o distinguish of the AveragWe oman otherwisec laspingh erh usband.I t amongth em-wek nowt hatc ommon Ancientt ombsa ref oundt hroughout was importantf ort he Egyptiana rtist womena sw ella sw omeni n the elite the Nile Valleyi,t s limestonec liffs to presentt he entireh umanf igure, andr oyacl lassesw erec ommemo- harrinpgr ovidedco nvenienat nde asily andt his necessitatedp lacingt he ratedb yp hysicaml onumentsI. w ill cut rockt hat couldb e used as build- wife in such a wayt hat she appears concentratoen thesem onuments, ing blockso r hollowedi nto, depend- to be takinga positionb ehindh er botha rtistica nda rchitecturaals, a ing on the preferenceo f the age. husbandw hen in fact,s he is meant wayo f illustratintgh e independence, Vaste xpanseso f wall decoration to be seen as sittingo r standingb e- responsiblpeo sitionsa nds elf-respect datingf romt he laterO ldK ingdom side him, as in sculpturedg roups enjoyedb yv ariousc lasseso f women ands ubsequentM iddlea ndN ew that survivef romt he threem ajor in ancientE gyptiasno ciety. Kingdomp eriods{ seea ccompanying earlyp eriods. 4 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991 -l ze-4Flw .@ A; t _ if_ ' X Thiss cenef romt he tombo f Nakhta t Thebes, ThroughouEt gyptianh istory datingt o the EighteenthD ynastys, hows (Fischer1 989:2 1).T his givesu s a femalem usicianse ntertaininga t a banquet. womenp rominentin tombs cenesa re Sceness ucha s this indicatet hata ncient strongi ndicationt hatw omenw ielded most oftend epicteda s companions Egyptianw omenf ullym ingledi n society. the family'sp urchasingp owera, of the men beingc ommemorated. Photob y LeonardH . Lesko. prestigiousa ndd efinitelyn ot uni- Theira ttainmentss, uch as literacy, versalp osition.A lso significanti s or theirm ost prestigiousp ublica c- evidencet hat in the earliesth istori- Throughout Egyptian tivities areu suallyo nly subtly cal periodsw eavingw orkshopsw ere hinteda t in these portraits( through fillede xclusivelyb yw omen,w hereas history women the ornamentst hey hold)a nda re men did not movei nto this impor- mentionedv eryb riefly,i f at all, in tant industryf ors everalc enturies. promillent in tomb the accompanyingin scriptionsW. e In the OldK ingdomt, itles de- can also wonderw hy mored etailed notingp ositionso f responsibility scenes are most descriptionso f a man'sc areer, anda uthorityb elongedt o womeno f whetheri n the military,t he civil the elite class,w ho generallyw ere often depicted as service,o r the templeh ierarchya, re closely tied by bloodo r marriageto not shown,w hereasi n OldK ingdom the royalf amily.T ombi nscriptions companions of the tombsa nds ome tombsd atingt o of some womenp rovides tartling laterp eriodst he supervisingo f work evidenceo f theirp rofessionailn - men commemorated. on estatesa ndw orkshopsis empha- volvements.O ne womant ells of be- sized.I t is likely that religiousm o- ing an overseero f femalep hysicians tivationw as behindt he choiceo f Iyt-hotepb,e aringth e titleM istresos f theH ouse (Ghalioungu1i 975).A notheru sed tombs cenes.P erhapsth e perpetual andC hantresos fA mon,i s picturedin this wall the importantt itles of judgea nd decorationfr omt ombn umber9 6 at Thebes. abundanceo f fooda ndw ateri n the vizier,a lthought hey mayh aveb een Notices he is carryinga n ankha ndo therc ult beyond,e vent he renewalo f the life implementsP. hotob y LeonardH . Lesko. purelyh onorific( Fischer1 976:7 4- cycle,i s beinga ssureda ndn ot the 75).T herei s, howevera, n abundance continuationo f earthlyc oncerns of titles forw omeni n positionso f andi dentities.T hus tombs cenes are authoritys, uch as Directoro f the only of limitedv aluei n reconstruct- DiningH all, Overseero f Funerary ing peoples'l ives,o fferinga partial Priestsa ndO verseero f the Weavers' andb iasedl ook at the Egyptian House,t o namea few (Fischer1 976: familya nds ociety. 70-71).I t woulds eem that few re- Neverthelessi t is obviousf rom strictionsw erep lacedo n womeno f these tombs cenes that ancient abilitya ndh igh social statusi n the Egyptianw omenw erer especteda nd OldK ingdomI. t is interestingt o that they fully mingledi n society, note that religiousp ositionsw ere playingm anyr oles,w hetheri n the not limitedt o noblewomenf, orw e household,t he templec ults, or the havef oundp riestesseso f majorg od- economicr ealm.P easantw omena re dessesw ho bearh umblet itles such depicteda s helpingw ith the harvest as tenantf armer. andt rappingb irds;t ownswomena re Manya dministrativeh, onorific showna s professionaml ourners, andp riestlyt itles forw omenh ave musiciansa ndd ancersm, emberso f been recoveredfr omO ld Kingdom a temples taffa ndp artyg uests.R are, monuments;f ewerh aveb eenf ound thoughe xtant,a res ceneso f a woman fromt he MiddleK ingdomw, hich commandinga boato r buyinga nd followedt he FirstI ntermediate sellingg oodsi n the marketplace Perioda, time of sociala nde conomic BiblicalA rchaeologistMs arch1 991 5 ThroughouEt gyptianh istoryprominent womeni n tombs cenesa rem osto ftend epicted as companionos f them en beingc ommemo- rated.H erea reR enutetp, riestesso f EIathor, andh erh usband,Y unyT. hisN ew Kingdom portraidt atest o the NineteenthD ynasty. Photoc ourtesyo f the MetropolitaMn useum of Art,N ew York(1 5.2.1R, ogerFs und). piece as beingu nmistakablyfr om the OldK ingdom. A morea ttractivefe malep ortrait is the MiddleK ingdoms tatueo f LadyS entluwyw, ife of the Nomarch HapdjefiO. riginallyf romA sslut and now in the Museumo f FineA rts in Boston,t his statuei s a supremee x- ampleo f lifesized Egyptianp ortrai- turec arvedi n granite.T he graceo f the femalef igurei s enhancedb y the unknowns culptor'sd isperlsirlwg ith the backp illar,w hich too oftenm ars Egyptians culpturei n the round.A veryf ull coiffurel endsn ecessary supportf ort he head,r esultingi n a instabilityM. iddleK ingdomt itles Numerousr ecordss how this was Thep airs tatuew as verypopularb,u t women forw omens eldomr eflectp ositions true of freew omeni n generaltn ot weren ot onlyportrayeidn the companyo f theirh usbandso rs ons.I ndividuafle male of authority( Ward1 989:3 4-391, just those of the gentry( Allam1 985: portraitsh aveb eenf oundf romt hroughout which suggestsp oliticala nde co- 14-221.O n a personall evelti t is the centuriesO. nee xamplei s this Mitr.t- nomic changes.I nstead,t hey reveal cleart hat womene njoyedf reedom priestessf romG iza,d iscoveredea rliert his centuryb y an excavationte amf romt he a rangeo f jobsi n the servicei ndus- of movementa nda ssociation,t hat Universityo f Californiaa t BerkeleyT. he tries,f roms cribet o hairdresser, they couldm arrya ndd ivorcea t will, simpled ress,s tockyb uilda nd boldp laneso f gardenerto miller (Ward1 986:8 -171. that they engagedin commercea nd the statuec haracteriziet as belongingto the OldK ingdomP. hotoc ourtesyo f the Lowie Duringt he prosperoues mpireo f that they werea blet o exercise Museumo f Anthropologyth, e Universityo f the New Kingdomt, he civil service authorityo vero thersi n the work- Californiaa t Berkeley(6 19802). andt empleh ierarchiesb ecamee ven placeo r temple. morep rofessionalizedyte t therei s Statuaryo f women.I n additiont o evidencet hat womena gains ervedi n wall scenes,t ombsa ndt emplesc on- the cults of majora s well as minor tainedp rivates tatuaryo f bothw omen templesa ndt hat they filled some andm en. Privatem onumentsf rom administrativpe ositions,s uch as ancientE gyptt end to be diminutivet controllinga ccesst o temples tores especiallyi f carvedo ut of stone. (Lesko1 987a:2 11N. umeroust exts Form uch of its history,t he pair haves urvivedf romt his period,i n- statues howinga husbanda ndw ife cludingc ourtd ocumentsa ndp rivate (sometimesa son andm other)s eated lettersr evealingt hat womenh ad side by side was popularA. woman their own independenlte gali dentity was not only portrayedin the com- on a parw ith men andt hat they panyo f her husbando r son, however, couldi nherito r purchasep roperty as individualp ortraitso f womena re andd isposeo f it without a male co- foundf romt hroughoutth e centuries. signatoryo r legalg uardianI.n deedt One examplei s the Mitr.t-priestess womenw ereh eadso f households, fromG izad iscoverede arliert his testifiedi n court,w itnessedd ocu- centuryb y an excavationte amf rom ments,a cteda s executorso f their the Universityo f CaliforniaT. he familye statesa nda ssumedt he obli- simpled ress,s tockyb uilda ndb old gationso f a citizenv is-a-vist he State. planeso f the statuec haracterizteh is 6 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991 Art in New Yorkw, as founda t Adana than statues,p resumablyb ecause in Asia Minor. they weree asiert o producea ndc ost Egypt'se mpirec ontinuedt o less, ares telaed edicatedto preserving expandi n the New Kingdomr, esult- the memoryo f individualsT. hese ing in greaterc osmopolitans ophistz- stelaed epictt he deceased,a nd cation.D uringt his periodp ortraits sometimesf amilym embers,s eated of womerlw erec reatedi n all media at a tablel oadedw ith fooda ndd rinl<. ands izes, with the womarSsso cial They arei nscribedw ith the names statuso r wealthg enerallyr eflected andt itles of the ownerl andu sually in the size of the statue.T he wife of familym embersJto getherw ith an a high officialm ightb e commemo- invocationt hat was meante ither ratedi n a life-sizeds culpturew, hile magicallyt o perpetuateth e offerings womeno f moreh umbles tations of "at housande ach of breadb, eer, hadt o be contentw ith statuettes measuringo nly a foot or two in height.A lthougha womanw as Egyptians believed that when their depictions were put in tombs it would perpetuate them into eternal life. usuallyp airedw ith a male relative, therea res everals tatuesi n which a womani s pairedw ith a femaler ela- tive (usuallya mothera ndd aughter), andt herea rei ndividualp ortrait sculpturesa s well. Typicallyin this morev oluptuousa get he artistt ook This Middle Kingdomp ortrait of Lady Sennuwy of Assiut, wife of the Nomarch greatc aret o delineatet he curls Hapdjefisi s a supreme example of life-sized of the wigs andt he textureo f the Egyptianp ortraiturec arvedi n granite. Note dresses.S omeo f the most enchant- that the unknown sculptor used a full coiffure instead of the usual back pillar to support ing individualp ortraitso f women the head, resulting in a graceful,m ore lifelike ared onei n wooda ndc ome fromt he portrayal.P hoto courtesy of the Museum of Ramessidea ge.T he lines of their Fine Arts) Boston (14.7 20). slim anda lwaysy outhfulb odiesa re morel ifelikep ortrayalS. till, one shownt hroughd iaphanousli nen wishes form orea utobiographical robesw ith folds andp leatst hat are informationfr omt hese monuments. especiallye asyt o portrayin this Mysteriouslyt,h is statuew as found softerm edium.I dealisticp ortrayals As Egypt'se mpire continued to expand during farf romh erh ome in the Dongola werev eryc ommona pparentlyb e- the New Kingdom,a greaterc osmopolitan sophistication resulted. Typicallyi n this regiono f the UpperN ile, parto f a causet he Egyptiansb elievedt hat more voluptuous age sculptors took great care barbaribc urial.D eterminingh ow, when such depictionsw erep lacedi n to delineate the curls of women's wigs and when andw hy it got therei s prob- tombst hey wouldp erpetuateth em the texture of their dresses, as exemplified by this wooden statuette of Lady Teyed ating to lematic.S imilarlya, much smaller into eternall ife. Aftera ll, who would the Eighteenth Dynasty. Photo courtesy of statueo f an Egyptianfe malen urse, not lilnet o remainy oungf orever? the MetropolitanM useum of Art, New York now in the MetropolitanM useumo f Privates telae.E venm orec ommon (41.2.10,R ogersP und). BiblicalArchaeologistM, arch1 991 7 oxen,a ndf owl"o r at Iconographicch anges least-providae text for l l in scenesd epictedo n passersbyto recitea nd | I stelaeh aveb een studied, thus ensures ustenance | ! andi t is interestingt o to the deceasedl and | | note that as the Twelfth family). l | Dynastyp rogressedth e The majorityo f ste- l mothers eems increasing- lae depicth usbandsa nd | ly to displacet he wife in wives,b ut some women l . . . .. hads telaee xclusivelyo f l! psrommencec enes on stem lataeml. o wn.y ed their own or shared l by men. Evenw hen the them with femaler ela- l fatheri s depictedh, e is tives. Stelaed onatedb y l neverp ortrayedas promi- daughtersto commemo- nently as the mother ratet heirm othersh ave | (Pfluger1 947:1 28-29). been found.I n anyc ase, | The importanceo f the the nameso f the women | motheri n the Egyptian areo ften accompanied familyi s reflectedi n the by their titles, whether | literatureo f all periods secularo r religious. | as well as in the factt hat Manyf emalem embers X Egyptianm en,e vent hose of the OldK ingdome lite of the highests ocialc lass boret he title of King's andi n highestr anlQosf Acquaintancea, lso the civil serviceo r the knownf romm onuments | military,o ftenp laced of men. Latert, he most || only theirm others' commont itle, regardless 1] nameso n their monu- of social status,w as 11 ments ando therd ocu- Mistresso f the House.A ments.F amilyg roups womanw ho couldc laim predominateo n stelae a clericalt itle was sure i froma ll periods.A s with to mentioni t on her stelaed epictingo nlym en, tomb,s tatue,o r stela. the numbero f stelae Suchm onumentst ell of designede xclusivelyf or the rolesw omenp layedi n ancient Evenm orec ommont hans tatuesa res telae womens eems to be small. Sceneso n Egyptians ociety,w hich, when dedicatedt o preservingth em emoryo f indi- funerarys telaeu suallys how a male viduals.T heses telaed epictt he deceased, comparedw ith dateso f the source figure,p robablya son, performing ands ometimesf amilym emberss, ittinga t a materials,c hangedo vert ime. For tablel oadedw ith fooda ndd rink.T heya re ritesb eforeh is parentsb, ut occa- instance,m orew omenh eld high- inscribedw ith then amesa nd titles of the sionallya femalef igureo fficiates. rankingp riestessp ositionsi n the ownert ogetherw ith an invocationd esigned Femalev otives telae,o n which only to ensures ustenancet o the deceaseda nd OldK ingdomt han in the centuries family.T hem aj orityo fs telaed epicth usbands the womend edicatoris depicted immediatelyf ollowingi t (Galvin and wives,b uts ome womenh ad stelaeo f worshipingh er favorited eities,h ave theiro wn ors haredt hemw ith femaler ela- 1989:2 6) been foundi n numeroust own and tives.T hisp aintedl imestones telaf romt he Up until the TwelfthD ynasty MiddleK ingdomis dedicatedt o two women, cemeteryc ontexts,s uch as at Deir (MiddleK ingdom)s,t elaew erem ade InyotefanAahn dM eswet-NetretteXbhy,f our el-Medineha ndA bydos. otherw omen,p resumablyo f modestm eans. forf uneraryp urposeso nly,b ut Nineteenth-centurya rchae- Photoc ourtesyo f theM etropolitaMn useum abouth alf the piecesd atingt o the of ArtJN ew York(3 6.3.270). ologistA ugusteM ariettef ound2 3 MiddleK ingdoms eem to haveb een LateP eriods telaeo f womenb earing dedicatedd uringa persoWlsi fe as tablesd edicatedb y womenw ere the religioust itle chantresst ogether votivesf org ods.S imilarlys, mall foundt ogethera t Lisht.T heyw ere in one parto f the greatn ational stone offeringt ablesb earingt he apparentlyd edicatedb y womeno f shrinea ndn ecropoliso f Abydos, namesa ndt itles of the dedicators modestm eans,w ith titles ranging which was sacredt o Osiris,a godo f werea favoritef ormo f commemora- fromh all keepert o housemaida nd, the dead( Mariette1 880:n umbers tion as well as an expressiono f a possibly,c leaningl ady (Ward1 989: 1173-94).O f the 23 stelae,o nly five persontps iety.A groupo f 14 offering 33-34). includeda husband'fsi gurea ndn ame, 8 BiblicalArchaeologist, March 1991

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