The Biblical Archaeologist - Vol.46, N.2

68 Pages·1983·16.01 MB·English

by  American Schools of Oriental Research

S OF 0
Biblical
CI1
Archaeologist
Spring 1983 Volume 46 Number 2
Samuel Noah Kramer Sumerian Lamentations
on
Pauline Albenda: Iron Age Women
Edwin Yamauchi: Scythian Invaders
An Invitation
to ProspectiveAu thors
The editors of Biblical Archaeologist are soliciting article proposals for four new
departments: "Enigmatic Bible Passages," "BAG uide to Artifacts," "BAP ortrait,"a nd
"The Museum Trail."O ur goal is for each of these columns to appeari n every issue of BA. To
achieve that goal, we need to have a steady flow of ideas, proposals, and manuscripts coming in
to our mailbox here in Durham.
The descriptions and guidelines furnished below are designed to give prospective
authors a good idea of what we're looking for. We welcome your suggestions and
comments on these new departments-and on any and all aspects of BA.
4 rsswto ..
..,.(cid:127),,jw~s,(cid:127) " ilf6 ',I I off ?I
646so
14,.4.,6-?
#,..+""0+-.' 1.6 . "1*"
met W 1
^, off. ..(cid:127)..(cid:127)
ENIGMATICB IBLEP ASSAGES BA PORTRAIT
This departmenwt ill consist of one or,p refer- This departmenwt ill comprisea briefb iograph-
ably,a pairo f 750-2000 worde ssays,i deallyo ne for ical treatmento f one of the deceasedm oderng iants
OldT estamenta ndo ne forN ew TestamentT. he of NearE asterns tudies- archaeology, exploration,
authoro f eache ssayw ill discussa biblical historiographbyi, blicals tudies,i ntertestamental
verse/passage/pericopthe at displayso ne or more studies,A ssyriology,E gyptologyH, ittitology,
featuresli kely to interesto urr eaders. Semitics,e tc.--together with one or two illustra-
The passagem ayb e one that has proved tions. The projectedle ngtho f eache ssayi s 1000-
notoriouslyd ifficultf orc ommentatorsd ownt he 2000 words.
centuriest o interpretO. r,i t mightr ecounta n Scholarsw ho werei n some wayp ioneerso r
incident,b elief,p ractice,o r ritualt hat seems exemplarsa rep rimec andidatesfo rt he "BAP ortrait."
bizarree, veni ncomprehensiblet,o us todayW. ea re Profiles of the 19th- and early 20th-century scholars
particularlyin terestedi n units on which modern are especially desirable. And we encouragea uthors
archaeologicale,p igraphico, r manuscripdt iscover- to select interesting, colorful charactersa s their
ies haves hede xcitingn ew light. subjects.
It is imperativet hat eache ssayi n this series "BAP ortrait"s hould be written in a lively
be gearedt o the readerw ho lacks a knowledgeo f style and with a humanistic orientation. Explain
ancientl anguagesa nds cripts.T he authors hould why the person'sw ork was/is significant, but also
not attemptt o elaborateth e passage'sth eological tell the readers omething about the human being
messaget o modernb elieversR. atherh, e/she behind the eminent scholar.A sprightly anecdote
shoulde mphasizen oteworthyin sightst hath ave or well-chosen quote drawnf rom a work by one of
beena chievedt hrought he use of the historical- the individual's contemporaries,f or example,
criticalm ethoda nd/ora rchaeology(.I tw ouldb e often says more than many pages of straightforward
equallyw orthwhileh, owevert,o treata knotty biographicald etail. Again, only deceased figures
passaget hath as consistentlyr esistedt he best efforts will be profiled in the "BAP ortrait."W ep lan to use
of historical-criticaml ethodologya nds toutly the ASOR Newsletter to salute our active peers.
refusest o yield up its meaningt o scholars.W) ea re It is unnecessary to use any kind of formal
hopingt o playu p the "detectivew ork"a specto f referencesc iting scholarly literature. If you like,
goods cholarshipw heneverp ossible. you may note two or three sources as "Suggestions
It is unnecessaryt o use anyk indo f formal for FurtherR eading."
referencesc iting scholarlyl iteratureI. f you like, you
may note up to six sources as "Suggestionsf or
FurtherR eading." continued on inside back cover
SOF O, 9
Biblical
C1
Spring 1983 Volume 46 Number 2
Page7 4 Page8 2 Page9 8
69 THE WEEPINGG ODDESS: 101 THE MUSEUM TRAIL 117 BA GUIDE TO ARTIFACTS
SUMERIAN PROTOTYPES The HarvardS emitic Tokensa nd Counting
OFT HE MATERD OLOROSA Museum Rises Again Denise Schmandt-Besserat
Samuel Noah Kramer JaneTt assel In the Middle East between 8000 and
The world'sf oremost Sumerologist Afterf ortyy earso f neglect, a revivified 3100 B.c., tokens were used as coun-
has searchedt hroughS umerianl iter- museum opens to the public. ters in ancient data-processings ys-
ature forp assagest hat portrayt he role, tems. The study of these tokens has
charactera, nd behavioro f the "weep- 109 ARCHAEOLOGYA ND THE yielded new insights into the develop-
ing goddess"' PUBLIC'SP ERCEPTIONO F ment of cognitive skills duringt he
last phase of prehistory.
THE ANCIENT WORLD
82 WESTERNA SIATICW OMEN
A recent archaeologicalf ind and a hit 121 IDENTIFYINGT HE
IN THE IRON AGE:T HEIR movie led to this conversation
CURVING LINE ON THE
IMAGER EVEALED between two scholars-Eric Meyers,
Pauline Albenda editor of BA, and Michael Payne, BAR-KOKHBTAE MPLEC OIN
Our understandingo f the roles and a professora t Bucknell University. LawrenceD . Sporty
status of women in antiquity has One variationo f the Templef acadeo n
recently dependedo n textual data 113 THE ETHIOPIAN LEGEND a Bar-Kokhbcao in shows a curving
uncovereda t archaeologicals ites. In OF THE ARK line beneath the crownworko f the
a search for new sources of informa- facade.W hat does this line represent?
BarryH oberman
tion, the author examines Assyrian The KebraN agast, the national saga
wall reliefs and variousw orks of art
of Ethiopia,c ontains an engaging,a l- DEPARTMENTS
from northernS yria. though fictional, account of the theft
of the Ark of the Covenant.
90 THE SCYTHIANS: INVAD- 66 INTRODUCINGT HE AUTHORS
ING HORDES FROM THE 115 ENIGMATICB IBLE 67 LETTERT O THE READERS
RUSSIAN STEPPES PASSAGES 124 BOOKR EVIEWS
AEdnwciienn Yt Iasmraaeulf cahcie d a numbero f Jericho Off Limits A(Llteevre, Tnshoen A);rM t oefy Berisba lnicda Sl tNraanrrgaetA,i vrec h-
threats at her northernb order.T here (Joshua 6:26) aeology, The Rabbis, and EarlyC hris-
iicsdo ennnottewimf yap rtohcrheasaere ioienlsoov fga tidchiaenl eb gvhi biodlriecdnaecls ea w tuoitt hho rs WsoRifto hewbsyae im rrstf eiG atn,r .tet tiBh ohoanalteti a ndcmog bm yo nnpagrm itsheee J i nno usthhmuee asr6t oo-1ur1ise ,s 128 HttBiieaOosnl Oo(itSiKyetn r(SSa,R CnilEgboCeem)rE pmIuVatniEn)D;gP i ant tthone a Hnudm ani-
-the Scythians. Jerichoa lone is declaredo ff limits for
subsequent Israelites ettlement? Coveri nformation:S ee page9 6.
Biblical Archaeologist is published with the financial assistance of
Zion Research Foundation, a nonsectarian foundation for the study of the Bible
and the history of the Christian Church.
BIBLICAAL RCHAEOLOGIST/SPRIN1G98 3 65
Introducintghe Authors
Samuel Noah Kramerh as been called "Dean of the
world'sS umerologists, and the scholar who has done more
than anyone else to recovera nd make availableS umerian
literature."D r. Krameri s ProfessorE merituso f Assyriology
at the University of Pennsylvania,a nd his numerous
publications include History Begins at Sumer: Twenty-
Seven "Firsts"in Man's RecordedH istory (Doubleday
Anchor Books, 1959), The Sumerians: Their History
Culture,a nd Character( The University of Chicago
Press, 1963),a nd Fromt he Poetryo f Sumer: Creation,
Glorification,A doration (University of California
Press, 1979).
SamuelN oahK ramearn da ssociatesin fronto f thez igurat at
AqarQ u/ aboutt wentymilesw esto fBaghdadD r.K rameirs
second/rom the right. Toh is right are Dr. Na/i-al-Asil, then
directoro fthe IraqD epartment oAntiqitiquitieasn, d
TahaB aqir,t hen directoro f the IraqM useum, who itsas
Dr. Kramer'ss tudent at the Oriental Institute of the
University of Chicagoi n 1933. The othersi n the picture are
unidentified. Thisp hotographw as taken in 1946 during
PaulineA lbend a EdwisnY arnauchi Dr. Kramer'ss tay in Iraqa s Annual Professoro f the American
Schools of Oriental Researchf or the purpose o/studying, the
Iraqie xcavationds uringt he wary ears.
Pauline Albenda has published many articles on the arts
of Assyria. She is currentlys tudying and preparingf or
publication the unpublished drawingso f the monumen-
tal wall reliefs from Khorsabadu, nder a grantf rom the
National Endowmentf or the Humanities.
Denise Schmandt-Besserati s Associate Professoro f
Edwin Yamauchii s Professoro f History at Miami Middle EasternS tudies at the University of Texasa t
University in Oxford,O hio. He contributes frequently Austin. She writes, "I came to the study of tokens
to journals,a nd he is the author of a numbero f books totally by chance. In 1969 I started a study on the earliest
including The Stones and the Scriptures( J. B. Lippincott, uses of clay in the Middle East for the RadcliffeI nstitute
1972),T he Archaeology of New Testament Cities in in Cambridge,M assachusetts. This led me to systemati-
WesternA sia Minor (BakerB ook House, 1980),a nd Foes cally visit all availablec ollections of clay artifactsd ating
from the Northern Frontier:I nvading Hordesf rom the 8000-5000 stored in the museums of the Middle East,
Russian Steppes( BakerB ook House, 1982). Europe,a nd the United States. I was looking for
figurines, bricks, and pots. I found plenty of these but, in
JanetT assel is a teacher and writer from Lexington, addition, I was surprisedt o find the many small tokens.
Massachusetts. Her articles on the arts are featured The artifactss oon startedp uzzling me because they were
regularlyi n The Boston Globe and Boston magazine. She so ubiquitous; I figuredt hey had to have some meaning."
has also appearedi n numerous other publications, She adds, "I am presently workinga t a volume entitled
including Harvard Magazine, The New YorkT imes, BeforeW riting,t hat will be published by the University
Moment, ARTnews, Musical America, Opera News, and of TexasP ress. It will present a full documentation of the
Indiana Studies in the Humanities. token system from 8000-3000 ni.c."
66 BIBLICAAL RCHAEOLOGIST/SPIRI1N9G83
RoberGt . Bolingi s Professoorf OldT estamenat t
McCormickT heologicaSl eminaryin ChicagoH. e has
Letter to the Readers
contributedar ticlest o numerousj ournalsa ndb ookso f
collectede ssays,a ndh e has donet wo of the booksi n the
AnchorB ible series-Judges (1975) and Joshua( 1982).
Dr.B olingi s editoro f the journaBl iblicalR esearch.
LawrencDe . SportyM, .D.,i s ClinicalP rofessoarn dV ice
Chairmano f the Departmenot f Psychiatrya ndH uman
Behavioirn the Collegeo f Medicineo f the University
of Californiaa t Irvine.H e hasa long-standinign terest
in the historya, rt,a nda rchitecturoef the Second
Templep eriod.
BarryH obermanh asa master'sin OldT estamenftr om
HarvarDd ivinityS choola nda notheri n medieval
historyf romI ndianaU niversityH. is articleso n Near
Easterna ndC entraAl sianh istorya ppearr egularlyin
Aramco WorldM agazine; he has also contributedt o
HarvardM agazine, The Boston Phoenix, The Boston
Journala, ndT heL ampH. obermanw asf ormerlym anag- Of
inge ditoro f BA.
them anyi nterestinagr ticlesin this
issue of BA, I would like to mention
three in particular.T he first is our
feature article by Samuel Noah Kramer.
Dr. Kramer'sw ork in bringing to light the resem-
blances and parallels between the literaryw orks of
Sumer and the Bible is well known. In "The
WeepingG oddess: Sumerian Prototypeso f the Mater
Dolorosa," he continues this effort, this time
with Sumerian lamentations. I don't think it's an
overstatement to say that this is an important
article for students of the Bible, especially those
interested in biblical laments.
This issue of BA is also noteworthyf or its
initiation of a new department:" The Museum
Trail."T he purpose of this department is to inform
people about collections and exhibits they might
DeniseS chmandt.-Besserat LawrencDe . Sporty not be awareo f, and to inform them in such a way
that they are stimulated to see for themselves.
JanetT assel's article, "The HarvardS emitic Museum
Rises Again"s ucceeds admirablyi n this. I recom-
mend the article and the museum.
Finally,t his issue also includes a conversation
between two scholars-Eric Meyers, editor of
BA, and Michael Payne, a professoro f English and
history at Bucknell University. We would like to
do more articles in this interview format. Interviews
can communicate ideas with an immediacy that
is difficult to obtain in authoreda rticles, and of
course they can be interesting for the glimpses
they provideo f the person behind the ideas. Your
suggestions for people who could be interviewed
in future issues would be welcome.
Martin Wilcox
RoberCt . Boling Managing Editor
BIBLICAALR CHAEOLOGIST/SPRIN1G98 3 67
IN
F. Albright OsFO0
OF%, ; tIWns. titute of Archaeological Biblical
Researchi n Jerusalem
THE
announces its newly Archaeologst
expanded program
and improved facilities NEXT
Editor
Asecraiedse omf iLc Pecrtougrreasm, SB emi-minoanrtsha nlyd BA Eric M. Meyers
Reportsi n archaeologya nd related Associate Editor
subjects. James W Flanagan
Field Trips Bi-monthlyp rogramo f Managing Editor
study tours to eighty archaeological Martin Wilcox
sites and museums in Israela nd
Book Review Editor
annual trips to Cyprus, Jordana nd Peter B. Machinist
Egypt. Editorial Committee
ExcavationP rojectL ong-termf ield
Carole Fontaine
programa t Tel Miqne (Ekron) Volkmar Fritz
cosponsored by the Hebrew
Lawrence T. Geraty
University. David M. Gunn
Publications Program( in prepara-
A. T Kraabel
tion) Miqne( Ekronm) onograph Baruch A. Levine
series; a catalogueo f the Albright
Institute'sS tudyC ollectiona; survey Carol L. Meyers
of ArchaeologicRale sourceisn Israel; John Wilkinson
an annual publicationi n English of Art Director
HadashoAt rkheologiyot-Archaeological Susan Leeb
Surveysa nd Excavationisn Israel, Editorial Assistants
jointly sponsored by AIAR, Amy-Jill Levine
NGSBA, IES and the Departmento f Although we know a Jay Geller
Antiquities. Karen S. Hoglund
ResearchL ibrary1 8,000v olumes, greatd eal about the Subscriptions Manager
4ce5r0a jmouicrc noalllse,c mtiaopnss,; s mpieccrioafliizcihnega i nnd people of the ancient BStaarfbfa Arass Gis.t aSnmti ley
Syro-PalestinianA rchaeology,a nd world,w e know very Leslie E. Sladky
gAunacgieens ta Nndea Bri EbalisctaelSr ntuH diisetso.r y, Lan- little about the proce- AdvertisingS ales
WorkshopsR estoration,d rafting, durest hat were fol- Allan E. Shubert Company
198 Allendale Road
photographica nd storage facilities.
Scholar'sR esidence Single and lowed in their crafts King of Prussia, PA 19406
215-265-0648
double rooms with half board, -particularly the ways
daily/monthlyr ates. Two two-
bedroom apartmentsa vailablef or in which artistic designs Biblical Archaeologist (ISSN 0006-08951 is published
long-term rental. Firstp riorityg iven were executed. How qcauna rStcehrloyo (lWs oinf tOerr,iS epnrtianl gR, Sesuemarmcher (,A FSaOll)R b)y, a t hneo nA-pmreorfii-t ,
to Albright/ASORa ppointees. nonsectarian educational organization with administra-
Appointments and Fellowships did a Roman stone carver t1i9v1e 0o4f.f iScuebs sactr 4ip2t4io3n S oprrduecres Satnrde eatl,l Pbhuislaindeeslsp hcioar,r PeAsp on-
Adoncntuoraal alN waatriodns aalr Ee nmdaodwem foern Ptof osrt- proceedw hen design- 4d2e4n3c eS sphrouucled S btree seetn, Pt htoil aAdSeOlpRhi aS,u PbAsc r1i9p1t0io4n. ASenrnvuicael s,
subscription rates: $16 in the US., US. possessions,
the HumanitiesF ellowships;A nnual ing the decorationf or a and Canada; $18 foreign. Special annual subscription
PAr. oBfeasrstoornsa hnidp sS;Pa rmeu-deol Hct.o KrarlGe seso rge sarcophagus?H ow did rfUoaSrte .s stp ufoodsres snetstu sodioren nrste,st iaranenddd f Craeactunirlatedyda rf;aa $ct1eu2sl, t fsyoe:rn $edi1g 0an .ic n(oT ptohy qe o ufUa aSli .f,y
document that verifies your current status.) Current
Fellowships;H onoraryF ellowships a Byzantinea rtisang o single issues: $5 in the US., US. possessions, and
for Senior, Post-doctorala nd Re- Canada; $6 foreign. Students and retired faculty: $4
search Fellows. about laying out the iMn etmheb eUr.sS o.,f U A.SS.O pRos asuestsoimonast,i caanlldy Creacneaivdea ;B $i5b lfiocrael ign.
While all students and scholars in patterno f a mosaic? bAerncehfaiteso. logist as one of their annual membership
Ancient Near EasternS tudies are RobertH ouston Smith Aanrdti callel potrhoepro esadlist,o mriaanl cuosrcrreipsptso, nledtetnercse sthoo tuhled ebdei tsoern, t to
welcome to participatei n the pro- has made a study of tOhfef iEced, iBtoorx,B HibMli,c aDlu Akrec Shtaaetoiolong,i Dstu, rAhSaOmR, NPuCb l2i7ca7t0i6o.n s
gram of the AlbrightI nstitutea nd Unsolicited manuscripts must be accompanied by a
use its facility,p riorityi s given to representativew orks, and self-addressed, stamped envelope bearing the proper
members of the AmericanS chools return postage. Foreign contributors should furnish
ionff OorrmieanttiaolnR c eosnetaarccthP ."r oFfoerfsu sortrhS e. r hthee psree qsuenesttsia onnssw ine rhsit so iBMnotaeocrkhnsia nftoiisrot n,r eaDvl eirepewapr lsythm cooeunuldtp oobfne sO .s reinetn ttoa l DSrtu. Pdieetse,r T Bh. e Univer-
sity of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721.
Gtuittei no,f D Airrcehctaoero,Wl og. Fic.a AlR lbesreigahrctI hn, sti- article "DecorativeG eo- PCroimntpeods bityi oFni sbhye rC-Haraorlrinisao AnCc aodrepmorica tPiorne,s Ds,u Druhrahma,m N, CN.C .
P.O.B. 19096,9 1 190 Jerusalem, metricD esignsi n Stone-- Second-class postage paid at Philadelphia, PA 19104
Israel, Tel. 282-131,o r Mitchell and additional offices.
Rothman,A dministrativeD irector, The Rediscoveryo f a Postmaster: Send address changes to ASOR Subscrip-
tion Services, 4243 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA
ASOR, 4243 Spruce Street, Techniqueo f Roman- 19104.
2P2h2i-la4d64el3p. hia,P A 19104,T el. (215) Byzantine Craftsmen." OCoripeynrtiaglh Rt ?e se1a9r8c3h .b y the American Schools of
68 BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST/SPRING 1983
The
Weeping
Goddess:
Sumerian
Prototypes
of the
Mater
Dolorosa
by Samuel Noah Kramer
Some time about
2000 devasta-
B.c., a
ting calamity befell
Sumer, a disaster
that well-nigh
ended the existence
of Sumer as a
political entity.
What made this
catastrophe partic-
Ur-Nammu, the founder of the ThirdD ynasty, erected this stele at Ur. Only fragments of the
ularly tragic, was stele werep reserved,b ut it has been restored to its original size of approximatelyt en feet high
and five feet wide. The top decorative zone shows the king pouring libations before an
the poignant fact enthroned deity. The scene is repeated in the second zone with Ur-Nammu appearing
twice-once before the moon-god Nanna and once before the goddess Ningal. The heavily
that it marked damaged, lower zones of the stele originally depicted the king engaged in building
operations. University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.
BIBLICAAL RCHAEOLOGIST/SPRIN1G98 3 69
the end of a Sumerian renaissance of at bay,b ut to no avail. They contin- Finally,i n the twenty-fourth year
political and economic power,a ued their inroads into Sumer dur- of his reign, the Elamites and their
periodw hen learning, literature, and ing the reign of Ibbi-Sin,t he last allies, the Su-people, overwhelmed
music flourished throughout the king of the dynasty,w ho suc- and destroyedU r and led off Ibbi-Sin,
land. It had begun when a king of ceeded in holding on precariouslyt o and no doubt many of the nobles
Erechb y the name of Utuhegal his throne for twenty-foury ears. and priests, into captivity. It was this
defeatedt he barbaricG utian hordes Throughout his reign, his situation calamitous event that left a bitter,
from the east that had subjugated was insecure and even pathetic. distressing, harrowingi mpression on
much of Sumer.U tuhegal, however, Undermined by the repeatedi ncur- the Sumerian psyche. And in the
did not rule long over Sumer-his sions of the nomads from the west, years following this catastrophe,
throne was usurped by one of his after Ur had recoveredt o some
ambitious governors,U r-Nammu, extent, when the priestly poets and
who succeeded in founding the last bardsw ere called upon to help
important Sumerian dynasty,c om- conduct services in Ur's restored
monly known as the Third Dynasty temple, they were moved to com-
of Ur. Ur-Nammu reigned for six- pose lengthy poems consisting pri-
teen years and provedt o be a capable marily of mournful laments over
military leader,a great builder,a nd the sad fate of Sumer and its cities,
an outstanding administrator.' but all ending on a note of hope
Ur-Nammu was followed by and deliverance. It was in the course
his son Shulgi, who reigned for close of composing these heartrending
to half a century.S hulgi was one of laments that the Sumerian poets
the truly great monarchs of the created the image of the grieving
ancient world: an outstanding mili- "weepingg oddess,"s orrowful,t ender,
tary leader,a punctilious admini- and compassionate.
strator,a n energetic builder of monu-
mental temples, and, even more The Appearanceo f the Weeping
important, a veritable cultural Goddess in Sumerian Literature
Maecenas. He extended Sumer's In the course of the centuries that
political powera nd influence from followed, the "weeping goddess"
the Zagrosr angeso n the east to the image became a current motif in the
MediterraneanS ea on the west. He dirges and laments that abound in
instituted an effective bookkeeping Detail of coppers tatuette of Ur-Nammuf rom the Sumerian literary repertoire.S he
and accounting system in palace the Inanna temple at Nippur. appearsi n numerous and diverse
and temple, rearrangedt he calendar, guises: as the divine queen bemoan-
and standardizedw eights and mea- ing the destruction of her city and
sures throughout the land. He and assaulted by the hateful Elamites temple, the suppression of her cult,
broughtt o completion the construc- from the east, his empire tottered the sufferingo f the ravageda nd
tion of Sumer's most imposing stage and crumbled, and the governorso f dispersedp eople. Or, she is the
tower,t he ziggurato f Ur, which his all the more important cities of spouse, the sister, and above all the
fatherh ad left unfinished, and built Sumer found it advisable to abandon mother, of Dumuzi, or a Dumuzi-
numerous religious structures in their king and fend for themselves. like figure, who had been carried
the cities of Sumer.H e was a lavish One of these governors,I shbi-Irrab y off into the nether world, a tragic fate
patrono f the arts-he founded or name, was a craftyM achiavellian that came to symbolize the death
at least liberally supportedS umer's type, who kept on increasing his of the king and the destruction of
two majora cademies of learning, powerb y beguiling the confused her city and temple. Fort his paper
one in Ur and one in Nippur. and rathero btuse Ibbi-Sinw ith I have combed the Sumerian literary
But despite Shulgi's remarkable spurious comforting promises and documents in ordert o uncover and
achievements, the dynasty was honeyed seductive assurances that collect the more significant and
nearing its end. His two sons, Amar- lulled the king into a false sense of intelligible passages that portrayi n
Sin and Shu-Sin, reigned only nine security. So much so, that in time one way or another the role, character,
years each, and we now hear for the Sumer found itself under the rule and behavioro f the "weeping
first time of serious incursions by of two kings: Ibbi-Sin, whose domin- goddess"a s imagined by Sumer's
nomadic Amorites from the Syro- ion was limited to the capital Ur poets and bardso ver the centuries.
Arabiand esert. Shu-Sin found it and its environs, and Ishbi-Irraw, ho These documents fall into three
necessary to build a huge fortified controlled most of the other cities categories:( 1) A group of five city
wall to keep the barbaricn omads of Sumer from his capital Isin. lamentations which give the impres-
'Until very recently Ur-Nammu was thought to havep romulgatedt he first written law code in the history of man. Now, new facts have come
to light. See my article, "WhoW rotet he Ur-NammuL awC ode?"i n the forthcomingi ssue of Orientalia.
70 BIBLICAAL RCHAEOLOGIST/SPRIN1G98 3
sion that the destruction of Sumer that she had abandonedh er city and
and its cities was a tragic event It was in the course forsakenh er temple-she had tried
whose bitter memories were still desperately to prevent the catastro-
ratherf resh in the hearts and minds of composing phe that befell Ur and its inhabi-
of the Sumerian poets and bards. tants. On the very day that she had
Two of these, the "Lamentation laments over the learned that the great gods An and
Over the Destruction of Ur" and Enlil had decreed the destruction of
the "Lamentation Over the Destruc- sad fate of Sumer Ur and the extermination of its
tion of Sumer and Ur," were proba- people, she claims to have poured
bly composed no more than a genera- and its cities that out "the water of her eyes" before
tion or two after the collapse of the An and to have come as a suppliant
Third Dynasty of Ur, that is, about Sumerian poets cre- before Enlil, pleading with them
1900 B.c. The other three, the ated the image of and saying "Let not Ur be destroyed!
"LamentationO ver the Destruction Let not its people perish!" But in
of Nippur,"t he "Lamentation Over the grieving "weep- vain-"An changed not his word....
the Destruction of Erech,"a nd the Enlil soothed not my heart (by
"LamentationO ver the Destruc- ing goddess," saying) 'It is good, so be it!'"
tion of Eridu,"w ere composed about Even so, continues the goddess,
a century later, during the reign of sorrowful, tender, she refused to resign herself. With
Ishme-Dagan, the fourth ruler of the bent knees and outstretched arms
Dynasty of Isin. (2) A group of and compassionate.s he came before the council of the
formulaic, repetitive, stereotypical gods meeting in solemn session
liturgies and litanies that echo and repeatedh er plea: "Let not Ur be
from afar,a s it were, the destruction their mothers, and the alienation of destroyed!L et not its people perish!"
of such cities as Kesh, Isin, Ur, its rites and rituals. But again in vain. An and Enlil
Nippur, Erech,E ridu,a nd Larsa.( 3) A The poet then begins the third refused to change their cruel ver-
considerablen umber of liturgic stanza by introducing the agonizing, dict and they directed the utter
laments relating to the death of sleepless Ningal who seats herself destruction of the city and the
Dumuzi, or one of the deities that on the groundw ith her plaintive death of its people.
came to be associated with him; lyre, and chants a lament, the With Ningal's plea rejected,
most of these are couched in burden of which is the suffering the poet devotes the next two stan-
language that is laconic, enigmatic, inflicted upon her by the terrifying, zas to a detailed, distressing descrip-
ambiguous, and obscure. cyclonic destructive storm which tion of the destruction of Ur on
she cannot escape day or night and Enlil's command. He called the
Lamentations
which does not allow her one day cruel merciless storm, accompanied
LamentationO vert he Destruction of peace and rest. Because of the by ragingw inds and scorching fire,
of Ur. By far the most vivid, anguish of the land, the poet has against the trembling, horrified land.
graphic,a nd comprehensive deline- her continue, she trod the earth like After destroying the cities of Sumer
ation of the "weeping goddess"a nd a cow in search of its calf, but the it turned to Ur and "coveredi t like a
her agony and torment is found in land was not delivered of fear. garment, enveloped it like a cloth."
the "Lamentation Over the Destruc- Although, because her city was in Ur's high walls were breachedb y the
tion of Ur," a composition of over agony,s he flew to its aid, flappingh er Elamites and their allies, the
four hundred lines divided into wings like a bird in the sky, the Su-people. Dead bodies lay rotting
eleven stanzas. This work bewails city was nevertheless destroyedt o its away at Ur's lofty gates and wide
the destruction of Ur by the Elamites very foundations. Although when promenades; the blood of its people
and the Su-people, and the ravaging spying the "hand of the storm" she flowed like molten metal in the
of the land by a devastating calamity cried "Return,S torm,t o the steppe," crucible. Its arms-bearingm en died
designated as a cruel, ruthless, and her command was of no avail. The fighting; those who escaped were
heartless "storm." The first two storm chose not to depart.H er killed by the storm. Young and old,
stanzas set the stage, as it were, for Enunkug, her house of queenship, weak and strong, perished through
the appearance of Ningal as the for which she had been promised famine. The old men and old women
"weeping goddess." After bewailing long days, lay hugging the groundi n who stayed in their houses were
the abandonment of all the more tears and laments. In her temple, burnt alive. Disorder and confusion
important cities of Sumer by their which used to be the place where the reigned everywhere. Mother for-
tutelary deities, these stanzas con- spirit of the "blackheads"( that is, sook daughter; father forsook son;
clude with an exclamatory address the blackheadedp eople, the Sumer- wife and child were abandoned.
by the poet to the far-famed, high- ians) was soothed and comforted, Ningal, herself, had to flee the city
walled city of Ur, bemoaning its wrath and distress now abound "like a bird on the wing." Ur's
destruction, the carrying off of its instead of joyous celebrations. possessions were defiled, its store-
people like kids and lambs from Not, cries the grievingg oddess, houses were burnt, its rivers were
BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST/SPRING 1983 71
dried up. Ninlil, concludes the poet, and turning her house into ruins, chamber.A n, he consoles her, is no
left the city crying out to her warning them that she will lie down longer angry with her, and Enlil will
spouse Nanna: "Alasf or my city, alas in the debris and, like a fallen ox, restore her city so that she might
for my house.... Ur has been rise no more. Finally,t urning once once again be its queen.
destroyed, its people have been again to her city, she concludes her
dispersed!" lamentful soliloquy with the accusa- Other Lamentations. So much for
The poet now brings the em- tion that her house had been built the weeping Ningal as portrayed
bitteredN ingal once again on the in deceit and that her city, from in the "LamentationO ver the
scene, and has her utter a long Destruction of Ur!'"N othing quite
heartbreakings oliloquy bemoaning comparablet o this striking, poi-
the fate of her city and temple. An, gnant, sensitive depiction of the
she cries, has cursed her city, and "weepingg oddess"i s to be found
Enlil has turned inimical to her in any other extant Sumerianl ament,
house. Ur has been destroyedi nside not even in the four other impres-
and outside. In its rivers dust is sive lamentations listed in the first
heaped high; there is no fresh water. group. In the "LamentationO ver the
There is no grain in the field; gone Destruction of Sumer and Ur,"f or
is its field-worker.H er palm groves example, a composition of over
and vineyardsh ave broughtf orth five hundredl ines that is of no little
the mountain-thorn. Her posses- historical significance, one of the
sions have been carriedo ff to the stanzas mentions briefly virtually
lands abovea nd below; her precious every important Sumerian city
metals, stones, and lapis lazuli lie that had been destroyedb y the
scattereda bout. Her ornaments of enemy, as well as the name of its
precious metal and stone now weeping divine queen. But all that
adornt he bodies of those who "know the poet says about each of these
not" precious metal and stone. Her sufferingg oddesses is that they cry
sons and daughtersh ave been carried bitterly "Oh my destroyedc ity! Oh
off into captivity; she is no longer my destroyedh ouse!"-a vague,
queen of Ur. Her city and house have colorless assertion that says virtu-
been demolished and a strange city ally nothing about any passionate,
and a strangeh ouse have been erected emotional reaction to the suffering
in their place. Woe is her, she and devastation about them.
exclaims, Ur has been destroyed;i ts In the case of the "Lamentation
people have been put to death; Over the Destruction of Nippur,"
where now shall she sit down, where a composition of which the first
stand up? part only is a lament, while the
Here the poet interruptsN ingal's second, largerp art is actually a
mournful soliloquy with a brief song of jubilation celebrating the
three-line passage depicting the deliverance of Nippur by the mes-
This tablet is inscribed with the third,
goddess'sv iolent emotional state: fourth,f ifth, and sixth stanzas of the "Lamen- siahlike Ishme-Dagan,i ts divine
With tear-fillede yes she tears out tation Over the Destruction of Ur." Univer- queen Ninlil is only briefly men-
her hair like rushes, and'beatsh er sity Museum, University of Pennsylvania. tioned, and not as a "weeping
breast like a drum. He then has the goddess"b ut rathera s a "great
goddess continue her despondent which all offeringsw ere now cut mother" offeringa prayert o her
monologue: Woe is her; her house is off, was devastatedb y the storm, out spouse Enlil who, accordingt o the
a stall torn down whose cows have of hatreda nd without cause. poet, had alreadyb een moved to
been dispersed-she was an unwor- So moved is the poet by Ningal's mercy and compassion by the plight
thy shepherdess who let her ewes tears that he exclaims, "O Queen, of the city and its anguished plea for
be struck down by the weapon. Woe make your heart like water,h ow can the restoration of his temple and the
is her; she has been exiled from you keep on living?" and repeats deliverance of the "blackheads!'
her city and can find no rest, can find this and parallelp hrasesa s a persis- The "Lamentation Over the
no home. As if she were a stranger tent refrain.F inally,a fter catalogu- Destruction of Erech" is only about
in a strange city, curses and abuse are ing the misfortunes that have over- half-preserved and in the extant
pressed upon her and she can say taken her, he pleads with the portion there is no mention of its
nothing in response. goddess to return to the city that queen Inanna in the role of a
The goddess now proceeds to loved her and looked up to her like "weeping goddess." Inanna does
berate the personified "City-Fate" a child to its mother. He begs her to appear toward the very end of the
and "House-Fate" who had dared returnl ike an ox to its stall, like a composition, not as a "weeping
approach her for destroying her city sheep to its fold, like a maiden to her goddess" but as the exalted Eve-
72 BIBLICAAL RCHAEOLOGIST/SPRIN1G98 3