The Biblical Archaeologist - Vol.40, N.3

43 Pages·1977·9.7 MB·English

by  American Schools of Oriental Research

ISSN: 0006-0895
OF
lop
SEPTEMBER19 77 VOLUME4 0 NUMBER3
... the Essenes, a community of complete
happiness,s ituatedb eside the Dead Sea in
the interior of Palestine somewheren ear
Sodom itself.-Dio
Published with the financial assistance of Biblical Archeologist is published quarterly
(March, May, September, December) by the
ZION RESEARCH FOUNDATION American Schools of Oriental Research in
Boston, Massachusetts cooperation with Scholars Press. Its purpose is
to provide the general reader with an accurate
A nonsectarian Protestant foundation scholarly yet easily understandable account of
for the study of the Bible archeological descoveries, and their bearing on
the biblical heritage. Unsolicited mss. are
and the history of the Christian Church welcome but should be accompanied by a
stamped, self-addressed envelope. Address all
editorial correspondence to Biblical
Archeologist, 1053 LSA Building, University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. Address
business correspondence to Scholars Press,
P.O. Box 5207, Missoula, MT 59806.
Copyright @ 1977 American Schools of
Oriental Research. Annual Subscription:
$10.00. Current single issues: $2.50. Printed in
the United States of America, Printing
Department, University of Montana,
Missoula, MT 59812.
Editor:
David Noel Freedman, University of
Michigan
Editorial Committee:
Frank M. Cross, Harvard University
Edward F. Campbell, Jr., McCormick
Theological Seminary
John S. Holladay, Jr., University of Toronto
3 H. Darrell Lance, Colgate-Rochester Divinity
School
Credits:
Photographs of Juba II (p. 127) from Portraits
of the Greeks, used with permission of
Phaidon Press, London. All other photo-
graphs by John C. Trever, Claremont, CA.
Photograph on p. 116 @ John C. Trever, 1970.
Photographs on pp. 102, 103, 105, 107, 110,
112-113, 118, and 119 ? John C. Trever, 1972.
Drawings and maps by Kent P. Jackson, Ann
Arbor, MI.
QumranT: hem ateriarl emainso f the Communitysu ggest
a well-organized life-style, which is confirmed by the
literaturea s well. In order to avoid excessive contact with
outsiders, the covenanters produced most of what they
Second Class Postage paid at
needed at the settlement itself. Missoula, MT 59812
and additional offices
Of?B~~ IBLICAL
ARCHEOLOGIST
Jerome Murphy-O'Connor 100 THE ESSENES IN PALESTINE
A fresh look at the covenant people of the Dead Sea
Scrolls, their origin, their history, and their
literature.
David Graf 125 THE PAGAN WITNESS TO THE
ESSENES
The Essenes, known almost exclusively from Jewish
sources, caught the attention of two exceptional
pagans-Pliny the Elder and Dio of Prusa.
94 LETTER TO THE READERS
98 POLEMICS AND IRENICS
99 NEWS FROM THE FIELD
130 THIRTY YEARS AGO
132 COLOPHON
THE DEAD SEA SCROLLS - RETROSPECTIVE
Letter to the Readers volume work by Yigael Yadin on the notorious Temple
Scroll, a comprehensive study of the Enoch literature by
J. T. Milik, and the first volume of a long-awaited series
on the discoveries from Cave 4 - this one by the late R. de
Vaux and the aforementioned Milik.
Yadin's three-volumew ork on the Temple Scroll is
The recent publication of three major works on the of the greatest significance for Qumran studies, both
Dead Sea scrolls serves to remind us of one of the most because the Scroll itself may be the most important of all
important and exciting archeological discoveries of the documents (and not just because it is the longest,
modern times. As so often happens, the initial discovery although that is a factor), and because Yadin has been
was made entirely by accident, the nature and import of working on scroll materials for many years and is
the material being grasped later and by others. All this recognized as a leading authority in this field. His
began thirty years ago - in the summer of 1947 - at a extended treatment of the War Scroll is the definitive
critical time in the modem history of the Near East. work on the subject and his publication of the documents
Because of the high tensions in Palestine at the time when from Cave I secured by his father, E. L. Sukenik, is a
the British Mandate was drawing to a close and model of its kind. The Temple Scroll adds substantially to
communications across the hardening defacto lines had our knowledge of the Qumran people and their attitude
all but broken down, news of the discovery leaked out toward their fellow Jews, especially in the area of the holy:
slowly and in piecemeal fashion. By the beginning of 1948 the Temple, its precincts, and the city in which it stood.
the significance of the manuscript find from what would The Temple of the Scroll is not the Temple in Jerusalem
be called Cave I was recognized by a handful of leading but a future sanctuary to be built there by God for the
scholars. The full dimensions of the extraordinary benefit and worship of the faithful, namely the Qumran
discovery became clear in time: seven relatively complete group. The details will concern scholars for years to come,
manuscripts approximately 2000 years old, containing but the whole will shed enormous light on the conflicts
texts of the Hebrew Bible and related literature, written in among the various Jewish groups and their complex
Hebrew and Aramaic. The survival of leather scrolls of relationship to the temple cult.
such antiquity in Palestine was so unexpected that many We welcome the first volume in the official
scholars doubted their genuineness or their age or both, Qumran series on the discoveries in Cave 4, which yielded
and the controversy, which proved to be irrelevant and the largest number of manuscript fragments, also in the
pointless, nevertheless continued for years. What was worst condition. This volume deals with the
immediately startling and remains impressive after thirty circumstances of the discovery and the details of
years is the discovery of extensive biblical documents and exploration and excavation. We look forward to the
fragments about 1000 years older than any previously publication of the documents as soon as possible.
known manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible. Excerpts from The volume on the Enoch literature by Milik is of
the initial reports of this incredible discovery in Biblical the greatest importance. This elusive corpus occupies a
Archeologist by G. E. Wright and the Bulletin of the unique strategical position in the extensive Jewish
American Schools of Oriental Research by W. F. literature of the periods under discussion, since it has
Albright convey the excitement and the early evaluation significant affinities with contemporary canonical and
of the materials by these eminent scholars. apocryphal books and with early Christian documents.
The current crop of publications includes a three- The figure of the Son of Man, which plays such a
94 SEPTEMBER19 77
conspicuous role in the NT, appears in the so-called O'Connor to offer a synthesis on the basis of all available
Parables or Similitudes of Enoch, and the latter has been evidence, which we are pleased to publish.
regarded as a source of the former. Strangely enough, Looking backward, some of the evaluations and
among the varied fragments of Enoch uncovered in the expectations expressed in print and orally now seem
caves of Qumran, not a single excerpt from the extravagant and misguided. What is more surprising is
Similitudes has turned up, leading some scholars to how well some scholars gauged the real importance and
suppose that this part of the Enoch corpus is late and impact of these discoveries even on the basis of the initial
possibly dependent upon the Christian use of the term partial finds and reports. Critical questioning, a necessary
Son of Man, rather than the reverse. We are deeply and valuable adjunct of sound scholarship, served to
indebted to Milik for his comprehensive survey of the screen out some wild speculations and to channel serious
Enoch corpus, including especially the detailed study of inquiry, but persistent skepticism, indulged in by a small
the Qumran fragments. group of scholars, proved unrewarding. The genuine
This brings us to a propitious moment at which to antiquity of the scrolls, the identity of the people of
review the work on the scrolls to date. After thirty years Qumran and the caves, their role in the history of the
and countless articles and books by numerous scholars Jewish community, and significance of their writings for
and others, what can be said about the present state of the understandingo f contemporary Jewish thought - all
affairs? The record is mixed, as generally happens in these have been established beyond cavil. After thirty
human undertakings; extraordinary circumstances bring years, three points stand out:
out the best and the worst in scholars, depending upon the (1) The scrolls have made a major contribution to
quality of their persons as well as their works, and like a the study of the Hebrew text of the Bible. They come from
magnifying glass, expose virtues and vices for all to see. In a critical period in the history of scribal transmission,
the face of a huge quantity of manuscript materials, much before the fixing of the proto-Massoretic text, probably
of it so fragmentarya s to require the utmost ingenuity and in the Ist century C.E, but after the development of the
patience in the work of preservation and restoration, the major textual families. Thus among the scrolls are found
greatest part of the task was completed successfully years examples of the principal text-types, and it is possible in
ago. The original team of scholars entrusted with the task some instances to recover or reconstruct much earlier,
of sorting and assembling, analyzing and synthesizing, and often better, Hebrew texts than anything previously
has done its work well. Publication of results has been less available. For one or two books we are talking about the
successful and much of the surviving material has yet to state of the text in the 3rd or 4th century B.C.E.,a n
appear in print. With the publication of the Temple extraordinary and hitherto unexpected development. In
Scroll, practically all of the major texts are now available the process, we have come to a new appreciation of the
to scholars and students. Many of the smaller fragments value of the LXX - the Greek translation of the Hebrew
have also been published, but the glaring omission is Cave Bible - in its various recensions and editions, as
4: it contained more material - all in fragmentary ultimately providing one of the oldest and best of the text-
condition - than any other cave; while the task of sorting types.
and piecing together, studying and interpreting was (2) The scrolls along with the excavation of the
doubtless the most difficult of all, still after 25 years (the community center at Qumran supply contemporary
materials from Cave 4 came to light in 1952) we would evidence and documentation of one of the principal
expect that the materials would all be available for study. groups in Judaism during the last 2 centuries B.C.Ea. nd
When it comes to more general treatments, an the Ist century C.E.T he Essenes, their history, thought,
amplitude of studies and interpretations has appeared. worship, and life can now be recovered in a direct way -
While many controversies persist among scholars, far beyond anything provided by Josephus, Philo, and
especially about details, the broad outlines have been Pliny about this ratherm ysterious group. From their own
fixed by and for the great majority, and the status of the writings - Manual of Discipline, Thanksgiving Psalms,
question has been stabilized for some time. The date and Commentaries on biblical books, and many other works
provenience of the scrolls, the character and general - we gain a firsthand picture of the Essenes and a good
history of the Qumran community, the background and deal of incidental information about the other branches
setting in Jewish and Near Eastern history during the of Judaism and the Jewish community with whom they
Hellenistic-Roman period - all these are a matter of were in contact and often in conflict. As firsthand
widespread agreement, and it is possible for J. Murphy- testimony of religious faith and practice in this period the
BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGIST 95
value of the materials which have been preserved is assembling, studying, and preparing the materials for
inestimable. publication. It was expected that the scholar in question
(3) The scrolls provide rich background material would devote himself or herself assiduously to the work
for understanding the growth and development of until it was completed - and that there be no undue
different Jewish groups during the Ist century C.E.,a nd delays and certainly no deliberate obstruction. Needless
they shed light on the literaryc orpora which emerge from to say, different scholars have responded to these
the crises and struggles of that century. When the revolts assumptions and expectations in different ways, and their
had been suppressed and the many divergent groups had performance has varied from the extreme of prompt and
been reduced by destruction or compression or efficient (sometimes less than effective) publication to
consolidation, the survivors could be traced to their endless procrastination and delay. It can be said fairly
origins and the character and content of their thought to that such a monopolistic system, which depends solely on
these earlier sources. The scrolls provide many points of the willingness and ability of the individual scholar to
contact with early Christianity, emergent Rabbinic meet the expectations of his colleagues, has not proved
Judaism, and not least, that more shadowy phenomenon successful, especially when the mass of data is great and
we know as Gnosticism which permeated the whole the difficulty and/ or complexity of the decipherment and
Mediterraneana rea and infiltrated in varying degrees the interpretation require extended application. In recent
fabric of both Judaism and Christianity. Its roots, too, years especially, the length of time between discovery and
can be found in part at least in the Qumran documents. general publication of major finds has increased notably.
To sum up, the Qumran experience should be It seems to me that a frank discussion of the issue is long
regarded as a scholarly success, somewhat qualified by overdue and that a new approach to the question should
certain shortcomings. In view of the circumstances of at least be considered.
discovery and the way in which the materials dribbled There can hardly be any dispute that those
into responsible hands, in almost every case only after responsible for new discoveries should have the right to
passing through many others, we are lucky that so much publish them. Furthermore, it makes for an orderly
has survived and been made available and accessible. We procedure if the official publication of the materials is
may deplore the fact that the discoveries in all the assigned to particular, qualified scholars. In addition,
manuscript caves but one were made by amateurs and ample time must be allowed for thorough study, extended
that conditions were scientifically controlled only after analysis, and full treatment of the materials. Every effort
most of the documents were gone. But nothing much can should be made to expedite the official publication for the
be done about the beginning of such enterprises; benefit of other scholars and ultimately of the interested
discovery itself can hardly be regulated in advance, and public. However, imposing arbitrary or even flexible
happily restraints are as yet and probably always will be deadlines, while desirable, has not resulted in prompt
insufficient to prevent the chance find. dissemination of the data and is not likely to, since often a
Further along in the process, however, the great deal of time is needed for adequate assimilation of
responsibility of scholars can be recognized and defined the information and treatment of the problems.
more exactingly - and that has to do with the publication There is no reason, however, why the procedures
of new finds. The question is whether the traditional outlined above should also include exclusive
pattern is appropriate and acceptable any longer, monopolistic control of the primary material by one or
especially with regardt o great and important finds - that two scholars assigned to study the documents. On the
is, whether the precedure whereby a single scholar, or a contrary, the goals to which we all subscribe and aspire
small group can or should have the exclusive right to will be gained much more quickly and efficiently if the
study and publish inscriptional materials at their own materials are made available in photographic
pleasure and discretion, thus effectively barring the reproduction or facsimile as soon as possible to the entire
scholarly community and ultimately the public from scholarly community. In that way, the designated scholar
access to such materials. would not be working in isolation (always detrimental to
It is clear that once the new materials reach the best scholarly results) or in secret with a few
responsible hands, the owner or scholar assigned to work colleagues, but he would have the benefit of the wisdom
on them has a serious responsibility concerning the and ideas of the whole community, and his own work
documents. Traditionally, it has been the view that such a could proceed that much more quickly and effectively.
scholar or scholars should have exclusive control of the There is no reason why the so-called "official"p ublication
materials until he or she had completed the process of must be the first to appear - much better if it were to
96 SEPTEMBE1R9 77
come at the end of a process of disclosure and refinement. about a very vexing subject. We will be glad to hear from
It is a well-established fact that the decipherment and contributors and subscribers, scholars and non-scholars,
interpretation of documents proceed much more rapidly and will report on reactions as well as provide equal time
and successfully when many scholars are involved in the and space to the opposition. Let us hear from you.
work then when few or one are. Therefore I propose that D. N. Freedman
newly discovered inscriptions and documents be
presented in a suitable format - namely, photographs,
hand-copies, and preliminary transcriptions as soon after N.B.
discovery as is physically feasible. Some time may be I write as a guilty party, since I was assigned
needed simply to sort and assemble fragments, or to responsibility for the Leviticus Scroll from Cave 11 about
unroll and copy or photograph damaged materials or ten years ago. There have been some diplomatic and other
those which are otherwise difficult to handle. But it complications, but basically, the reason this document
should be possible to reproduce the texts within one year has not been published is that I was overloaded with other
of discovery at the outside. In that way the world of obligations and commitments which claimed my time.
scholarship would be much better served than it is now - That is not an excuse, and I should either have published
and needless roadblocks in the way of research would be the scroll or returned it to the team for reassignment.
removed. The history of scholarship in our field, which is Many if not most scholars harbor optimistic delusions
much affected by archeological finds and especially new about what they can and will do in the way of productive
inscriptional materials, would be a much happier account writing, and even after observing many colleagues fall
of progress, not marred by endless frustration on the part into the pit, I have followed the same primrose path. We
of those who do not have access to pertinent data simply badly need a society like AA for "assignment addicts"
because someone else has exclusive rights in the matter, who take on many more responsibilities than they will
were such a plan followed. ever discharge successfully because they are unable to
I do not expect that there will be unanimity on this refuse and have a hopelessly unrealistic notion of their
subject and realize that there are many views and opinions capacities and their work rate.
. . next time in
BIBLICAL
ARCHEOLOGIST
The Ark and Atrahasis
. How old is the wood which the Navarra expedition found on "Mt. Ararat?"
Lloyd R. Bailey, in "Wood from 'Mt. Ararat': Noah's Ark?",e xamines the tests run
on the wood recovered by Fernand Navarra in his search for Noah's ark, concluding
that the radiocarbon analysis points to a date no earlier than the 7th-8th centuries
A.D.
... Does the Atrahasis legend help us understand the Biblical account of the flood?
In comparing and contrasting the two accounts, Tikvah Frymer describes how the
Atrahasis narrative of the flood provides a structure for re-interpreting and re-
evaluating the flood stories in Genesis.
BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGIST 97
Polemics and Irenics "cherub" of the Renaissance on a publication (?) of the
ASOR. But he was indulgent. Looking back, I still don't
see how Ernest managed it so soon after our arrival - he
had only begun the job at ASOR on Jan. 1. And all the
previous fall, we had been laboring in Haverford to get
the Ain Shems stuff in order for publication (and he was
still writing text).
BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGISTw elcomes cor- Well there it was! To whom would we send it? And
respondence from its readers and will make who would do the sending?( Guess who!) And once they'd
every effort to print those letters, particularly, seen the sample issue, would anybody buy it? And where
that bring new evidence or fresh opinions to was the money to come from for publicity? Incredibly,
people did subscribe, and month by month we watched
bear on key issues. The editors reserve the right the subscription lists grow - requiring ever more sub-
to edit for brevity and clarity. scription forms and bills to be cranked off the
mimeograph machine.
In less than a year, we were on our way to Chicago
and McCormick (then "Presbyterian") Seminary. But
Comments on the "New" Biblical Archeologist
with no one but Gladys Walton to run the New Haven
(continued)
office, we could not leave our "baby" there. So it went
with us to Chalmers Place. Imagine the logistics of editing
(and mostly writing) in Chicago, a publication that was
It was a joy for me to receive a letter in late March, then duplicated in Ann Arbor and returned to our house,
1977, from Emily D. Wright, who was in a very real sense there to be inserted in special envelopes from another
co-editor with her husband G. Ernest Wright of the early printer, hand-addressed, with bills enclosed as needed,
volumes of the BA. Her letter tells something about all sorted and tied for mailing. Meanwhile, the bookkeeping
that, and I think you will want to share it with your and address changes for all this were in New Haven, still!
readers. Her picture of the new BA as a grand daddy (And in those days, rarelyd id anyone risk the expense of a
which has been tippling at the fountain of youth is a fine long distance phone call).
tribute to the new staff. As one who worked with BA I have a vivid picture of me, far into the night,
during its "middley ears", I heartily second her praise! We writing, writing until my hand wearied. And another
stand in a great tradition. mental picture of me, very large in front, sitting Indian-
fashion in the middle of the study floor at 842, surrounded
Edward F. Campbell, Jr.
by piles of addressed BA's - sorting them by states and
(editor and co-editor of BA, 1959-75)
cities - and inevitably misaddressing some and inserting
bills with copies whose recipients had already sent their
money to New Haven, unknown to us, and who would be
very put-out at being billed again! Well, so it continued,
until there was not only George, but David arriving to be
For some time now people have been writing and coped with. At that point, I yelled "quits." Besides, by
asking or remarking about the New BA. I didn't really then the baby magazine had grown into a boy-sized
know what they were talking about - supposing it to be journal in need of an addressograph.
nothing more than the red letter or full front page picture And now this! The "boy" has become a "grand
on the old format. Now that I behold the really, really, daddy" - but a strange looking grand daddy. It has the
new BA, I can't believe my eyes! Nor can I believe it is Vol. look and color of extreme youth! Whose creation is this?
39!
To all of you on the Editorial Board and to whomever this
It seems only yesterday that my husband of seven
grandmother's congratulations should go, please send
months came bounding into the room (Millar Burrows'
them. For this rejuvenated BA certainly comes closer to
office and the only office ASOR had) with the first copy
following the original intent of the founder than the old
of our first "child" - hot off the "press!" We couldn't
BA did, for many a long year.
believe it really was. I don't think the "proper" Prof.
Burrows was as overjoyed as we - at that bemused Emily Wright
SEPTEMBER1 977
single raised pomegranate (rimmon in Hebrew), has no
known parallel. The bowl supports the theory that Tell
Halif is the site of biblical Rimmon, which is mentioned in
Josh 15:32a s part of the inheritance of the tribe of Judah
and in 19:7 as part of the inheritance of Simeon.
During the Byzantine period Eusebius mentions
the existence of two large Jewish villages in this region:
News from the Field Rimmon, probably located at the site of Khirbet Umm er-
Rammamin (in Arabic, "The Mother of the
Pomegranates") 1 km. south of Tell Halif, and Tilla (at
Tell Halif, which according to early maps was occupied
by the Arab village Khirbet Tilla). After the
abandonment of the site at Tell Halif during the late Iron
II period (ca. 700 B.C.E.) the resettlement of the region
took place first at Umm er-Rammamin, which borrowed
the ancient name of the neighboring site. When the tell
was resettled later and the name was already taken, it was
renamed Tilla (Aramaic, "The Tell").
The excavations at Tell Halif are carried out by the
Lahav Research Project under the direction of Dr. Joe D.
Excavations in Jenin Seger, in affiliation with the American Schools of
Oriental Research, the Hebrew Union College, and the
One hundred ten kilometers north of Jerusalem is
Joe Allon Center for Regional Studies. The project is
Jenin, a city identified with biblical En Ganim. The
involved in the historical, archeological, and
mound in the center of the city has been threatened by
environmental study of the region surrounding Tell Halif.
modern building. Only six dunams of the upper tell
During the first two seasons excavations were conducted
survived the construction of the bus station in 1962, and
in three fields where architectural elements of the Early
shops are beginning to nibble at the edges of the mound.
Bronze, Late Bronze, Iron II, and Byzantine periods were
From April through October in 1977 a small team from
uncovered. A survey of minor sites around the mound
the Albright Institute in Jerusalem and Birzeit University
revealed the settlement patterns outside the walled city
attempted to rescue some history from two small plots on
and helped to identify water and land resources. A study
the east and west edges of the tell. Beginning at street level
of the recent occupation by the Ramadin bedouin tribe in
and excavating down more than 4 m., two major periods
caves around the tell, which is complemented by
were well documented-the end of LB II and the end of
interviews with remaining settlers, supplies the latest
EB I. The upper mound was not excavated but it is
chaper of the history of Tell Halif.
evident that Iron I and II is there cut into by a large
A fuller, illustrated report of the first two seasons
Omayyad building of the 8th century A.D.
of excavation at Tell Halif has been prepared by Joe D.
The ceramic evidence for both EB I and LB II was
Seger and Oded Borowski to appear in the next issue
sealed under the deep deposits of fallen brick wall.
(December 1977) of Biblical Archeologist.
Following the 13th-century destruction, on the east side
of the mound there was a much less impressive ODED BOROWSKI
occupation. The main feature of the EB I level on the west EMORY UNIVERSITY
side of Jenin was a reasonably well-preserved apsidal
house and courtyard. The city council of Jenin has agreed New Department of Antiquities Director in Jordan
to establish a corner of the city park for historical
monuments and to reconstruct this earliest house at Jenin Dr. Adnan Hadidi, formerly Associate Professor
in the park. of Archeology and Chairman of the Department of
A. GLOCK History and Archeology at the University of Jordan, has
DIRECTOR OF JENIN EXCAVATION replaced Mr. Yaqoub Oweis as the new Director-General
of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan. Dr. Hadidi
completed his B.A. in Ancient History and Archeology at
the American University of Beirut, his M.A. in Near
Tell Halif-Biblical Rimmon (?)
Eastern Archeology at the University of London Institute
A unique ceramic vessel of the late Iron Age was of Archeology, and his Ph.D. in Classical Archeology at
discovered in a tomb excavated at Tell Halif, Israel, the University of Missouri.
during the 1977 season of the Lahav Research Project. JAMES A. SAUER
The vessel, a shallow bowl ornamented in the center by a ACOR DIRECTOR
BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGIST 99
THE ESSENES IN PALESTINE
J. MURPHY-O'CONNOR
The origin of the Essene movement and the community at
Qumran has been the topic of scholarly debate since the
discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947. Now a
reconstruction of the sect's history is made possible through
careful reexamination of the Scrolls, the external witnesses,
and the archeology of the settlement.
The history of the Essenes is tied to three key respectively, but the African would have to piece together
figures who appear in the Dead Sea Scrolls as the Teacher the clues that the texts provide concerning their
of Righteousness, the Wicked Priest, and the Man of Lies. characters and activities. We are in the same position with
In the language of spy stories these are cover-names, and regard to the Scrolls, and the only procedure available is
the fundamental problem is to discover the historical to create a portrait of each of the three figures and then try
figures whose identities lie hidden behind these cryptic to relate these outlines to known historical personages.
designations. It is doubtful if deliberate mystification was The field of investigation is limited by a number of
intended. At the time of the writing of the Scrolls, the factors. All of the archeological evidence indicates that
identities of these figures were well known. Our the Scrolls were placed in the caves near Qumranp rior to
difficulties are created simply by our remoteness from the the destruction of the Essene settlement by the Romans in
events. The situation is analogous to an African trying to A.D. 68. This date, therefore, provides a definitive
deal with texts concerning the Irish Rebellion in 1916- terminal point. None of the figures in question could have
1920 in which the principal personages appear as the lived after this date. A second factor pushes the terminus
Chief, the Big Fellow, and the Blacksmith. To someone ad quem still further back. The handwriting of the
close to the events these are immediately identifiable as documents which are most important for a reconstruction
Eamon de Valera, Michael Collins, and Sean McKeown of the history of the Essenes permits them to be dated
within fairly narrow limits. The Rule (1 QS) was copied in
Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, O. P., a native of Cork, Ireland, the period 100-75 B.C., the Pesher on Habakkuk
has been Professor of New Testament and Intertestamental
Studies at the Ecole Biblique in Jerusalem since 1967. Since (1QpHab) and the Pesher on Nahum (4QpNah) in the
receiving a Th. D. at the University of Fribourg period 40-20 B.C.,a nd the Pesher on Psalms (4QpPsa) in
(Switzerland) in 1962, he has held several positions, the period 30 B.C.-A.D.2 0. We must also include the
including at the universities of Heidelberg and Tiibingen. In Damascus Document (CD) of which the only published
addition to numerous articles and books, he edited Paul and version is based on manuscripts of the 10th and I Ith
Qumran (London, 1968). centuries A.D. found in Cairo. Eight copies of this
100 SEPTEMBE1R97 7