The Biblical Archaeologist - Vol.29, N.1

36 Pages·1966·3.84 MB·English

by  American Schools of Oriental Research

The
BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST
lop
Published by%
THE AMERICAN SCHOOLS OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH
Jerusalem and Bagdad
Room 102, 6 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, Mass.
VOL.X XIX February,1 966 No. 1
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~oO o~
Fig. 1. Lamp of first decades of the Early Roman period, from Qumran. Copied by R.H.S. from
an original drawing in the files of the Biblique, Jerusalem, Jordan, used by per-
mission of R. de Vaux. .cole
Contents
The Household Lamps of Palestine in New Testament Times, by Robert H. Smith .. 2
Wilson's Arch Revisited, by William F. Stinespring ...................... ..................27
Concerning an American Schools Publication ....................................................36
2 THE BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST (Vol. XXIX,
The Biblical Archaeologist is published quarterly (February, May, September, December)
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PETERBOnOUGH, N. H.
The Household of Palestine in New Testament Times
Lamps
(Third in a three-parst eries*)
ROBERT HOUSTON SMITH
The College of Wooster
The era of the New Testament falls within the brief span of the
Early Roman period of Palestinianh istory, which began about the time
when Herod the Great took the throne in 37 B.C.1 and ended with the
destructiono f Jerusalema t the end of the Second Jewish Revolt in A.D.
135. This period, especiallyi n its earlier decades, has often been called
"Herodian,"si nce memberso f the dynastyf ounded by Herod (who died
in 4 B.C.) continued-under Roman supervision-to rule some parts of
Palestine down to the end of the first century A.D. It was an era char-
acterized not by a sharp cultural departure from the preceding period
but rather by a gradual and somewhat erratic replacement of Hellenistic
elements with Roman ones, a process which was not complete by the end
of the period.
*The first article, "The Household Lamps of Palestine in Old Testament Times," appeared in
the BA, XXVII (1964), pp. 1-31; the second, "The Household Lamps of Palestine in Intertes-
tamental Times," in the BA, XXVII (1964), pp. 101-124. Note two corrections to p. 108 of the
latter of these articles: (a) The comma at the end of line 12 should be a semicolon. (b) Foot-
note 11 attributes to W. F. Albright the view that the Marisa tomb paintings represent incense
bowls on stands, whereas Professor Albright actually interprets them as candelabra, i.e., lamp-
stands. The author apologizes to Professor Albright for presenting his position incorrectly. Unless
otherwise noted, each illustration in this article has been reduced to one-third of the size of the
original object. In a few cases the size has been estimated. For technical reasons line-drawings
taken from previous publications have been redrawn; this necessity has been utilized to introduce
a moderately unified format for the line-drawings. All Talmudic citations are from the Babylonian
Talmnud.
1. Many scholars prefer to date the beginning of the Roman period to 63 or 50 B.C.
1966, 1) THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST 3
Throughout this time the household lamps of Palestine underwent slow
modification, with occasional infusions of fresh elements; because, however,
the time-span is relatively short, some of the developments during this cen-
tury and a half are less striking than those during earlier, longer periods.
To the scholar, of course, no change of form, however subtle, is unim-
portant, since it may lead to a more precise subdivision within the period.
Not enough closely-dated specimens have yet been found to enable one to
trace the history of Palestinian lamps of this period decade by decade, but
with our present knowledge we can recognize three phases of lamp de-
velopment within this period.
Lamps during Herod's Reign and the Lifetime of Jesus
The history of Palestinian lamps during Herod's reign is still obscure,
though excavations at Herod's palace fortresses should eventually yield im-
portant evidence. Some lamp forms of the late Hellenistic period carried
over into Herod's reign, though interest in them was rapidly waning. Among
these carryoversw ere apparently wheelmade "cornucopia"a nd molded "sun-
burst" lamps. The latter were sometimes smaller and had stubbier nozzles,
but otherwise were much like the effete specimens of the preceding period.
The Hellenistic lamp tradition was not, however, totally exhausted.
Evidence of the beginning of a new departure in this old tradition, which
would eventually become a distinct kind of first-century A.D. lamp, comes
in the form of a unique specimen found in a pre-31 B.C. level at Qumran
(Fig. 1). Typologically it could perhaps be dated to the first century A.D.,
were it not for the broad, flat rim around the filling-hole, which is a late
Hellenistic convention. The lamp is molded, as few other lamps at Qumran
were, and was probably brought into the community from outside. Of buff
ware with a hard gray-pink slip, it is tastefully designed and skillfully ex-
ecuted. The smoothly curved, spatulated nozzle and prominent half-volutes
on the sides of the nozzle are basically Hellenistic features. Both the ring-
handle, now broken off, and the decoration of laurel leaves and berries
echo in particular the "Ephesus" lamps of the second century B.C. The
slight similarity which the specimen bears to lamps in the Roman style is
due more to a common Hellenistic background of both than to direct
Roman influence on this lamp.
By far the most important lamp to come to prominence during Herod's
reign was a simple wheelmade one of graceful design which has come to be
called the "Herodian" lamp.2 The form which, after some experimenta-
2. On Herodian lamps see P. P. Kahane, 'Atiqot, III (1961), especially pp. 135-139, and R. H.
Smith, Berytus, XIV (1961), pp. 53-65.
4 THE BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST (Vol. XXIX,
tion, potters settled upon during the latter part of Herod'sr eign or the
early yearso f the Christiane ra is that shown in Figure2 . The small lamp
on the left representst he commonests ize; most specimensa re so uniform
that one would almosts uspectt hey were productso f a single potter'ss hop.
They are usually rathers mall and of thin buff or light brown clay fired
medium-hardT. his early varietyo f Herodianl amp is distinguishablefr om
later varietiesp articularlyb y its downwards loping nozzle (when seen in
profile), its small wick-holea nd its wide flange around the filling-hole.
Occasionallyq uite large specimensw ere turned,s uch as that shown on the
right in Figure 2; intermediatesi zes do not seem to have been popular,
'\l
(i~'::
_
Fig. 2. Two early wheelmade "Herodian" lamps of the first few decades of the Christian era.
Left: top view and profile of a typical specimen, from Khirbet Kfifin. Photograph by R.H.S.
Right: large specimen from a tomb at Talpioth, near Jerusalem. From American Journal of
Archaeology, LI (1947), pl. LXXXV.A, used by permission.
In making a lamp of this kind, the potter first turned the oil reservoir
on his wheel, then attached to it a nozzle which he had previously shaped
with a knife. After punching a tube through the nozzle into the reservoir,
he pared the joint of the nozzle and reservoirf urther with his knife; traces
of this paring regularly appear on these lamps, for the potter did not bother
to smooth out the marks of his work. Before beginning the final processes
of drying and firing he usually dipped the lamp in a dilute mixture of the
same clay so as to give it a less porous and more finished surface.
The origin of the Herodian lamp cannot yet be fully traced. Some
early specimens show affinities with the wheelmade lamps of Qumran from
the first century B.C. Hellenistic molded lamps of that century seem also
to have exerted an influence, chiefly upon the curved end of the nozzle.
Lamps of Roman manufacture do not, however, seem to have influenced
the form of the lamp appreciably.
These Herodian lamps, which are so distinctively Palestinian, quickly
achieved popularity in the hill-country from Hebron to Samaria and beyond,
but most of all in the vicinity of Jerusalem;i ndeed, they may have evolved
in Jerusalem or nearby. They were often among the objects placed in
tombs, and were even used in the palaces of Herod and his sons. Evidently
1966, 1) THE BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST 5
Herod had no interest-or at least little success-in persuadingP alestinians
to adopt the more sophisticatedla mp-formws hich were currenti n Rome
in his day, nor even in encouragingt he continuationo f older Hellenistic
designs.T he popularityo f Herodianl ampsm ay in partb e the resulto f the
intensive efforts by Palestinianw heel-usingp otters to produce attractive,
inexpensivel amps which could compete successfullyw ith molded lamps.
Becauset his earlyv arietyo f Herodianl amp dominateda majorp ortion
of Palestined uring the first third of the first centuryA .D., it was probably
the kind of lampm ost familiart o Jesusa s he grew to manhooda nd engaged
in his public ministry.I t is not unlikely that he had one of these lampsi n
mind when he told his parableo f the womanw ho lighted a lamp to search
for a coin which she had lost (Luke 15:8), and againw hen he told the story
of the maidensa t a weddingp artyw ho took lampsw ith them to welcome
the bridegroomf,i ve maidensp rovidentlyt akinge xtra oil and five foolishly
takingn one (Matt. 25:1-12).
This latter story is especiallyi nterestingi n that it indicatess everal
things about the use of lamps. Since the maidens'l amps were presumably
lighted at dusk and were threateningt o go out by midnight,w e see that
the ordinaryl amp held enough oil for at most four or five hours' use.
Wicks must have been quite small for the oil to have lasted so long. We
also find that after several hours of burning a lamp'sx wickr equireda d-
justment,t hough we are not told just what the maidensd id when they
"trimmedt"h eirl amps.T he wordi n the Greekt ext has the broaderm eaning
of "set in order"o r "madep resentable.W" e may supposet hat they pulled
the wicks up a little and flickedo ff any carbonizedfl ax;t he "trimmingo"f
the lamp did not, however,i nvolve cutting off the end of the wick in a
straightl ine, as a modernk erosenel anternr equiresE. lsewherei n the Roman
world the wicks of fine bronze lamps were adjustedw ith tweezers"o r
with pins of bronzeo r iron,4 but this was not standarde quipmentf or clay
lamps;p robablya, s in the Hellenisticp eriod,a twig or splinters erveda s a
wick-adjusterT. he Mishnah (Kelim, 13.8) mentions the use of broken
teeth of combs (of wood or bone) in the maintenanceo f lamps, presum-
ably as wick-adjusters.
We learn furtherf rom this parablet hat it was commonf or one who
took a lamp from home in anticipationo f later use to carryt he oil for the
lamp in a separatec ontainer.W Vec annot be sure exactlyw hat kinds of oil
flasksw ere used; the Greekw ord in the storyi s a generalt ermf or "vessel"
3. See, for example, H. B. WValters, Catalogue of the Greek and Roman Lamps in the British
Museum, pp. 220f.
4. Examples can be found in G. Richter, Greek, Etruscan and Roman Bronzes, no. 1351, and
S. Loeschke, Lampen aus Vindonissa, fig. 38.
6 THE BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST (Vol. XXIX,
or "flask."A ny of several kinds of bottles xvith narroxvn ecks could have
served this purpose. Certain small spouted containers of the Hellenistic and
Roman periods have sometimes been identified as lamp fillers, but most of
the alleged specimens appear to be nursing bottles.5
The word translated "lamp" in this story is not the common term
lychnos, which is generally used in the New Testament, but rather lampas,
a word which in Hellenistic times had maant "torch."L amp as may appear
in this original sense in John 18:3, where xve read that those who came to
arrest Jesus carried lampades (plural of lamiipas).R ev. 8: 10 shows similar
usage: "A great star fell from heaven, blazing like a torch." On the basis,
of the details of the story, however, there can be no doubt that it is lamps,
not torches, which the ten maidens bring. A shorter version of the same
story appears in Luke 12:35, where the familiar term lychlnosi s used.
Clearly has undergone an extension of meaning by this time,
to the extent ltahmaitp i.ts is interchangeablew ith lychnos. This shift of usage can
be found in Greek literature as early as the second century B.C." The new
meaning of lanipas appears again in Acts 20:8, where the writer is describ-
ing an episode at Troas in Asia Minor, in which Paul raises a boy who had
dozed at an upstairs window and fallen to his death: "There were many
lamps [1ampades] in the upper chamber where we were gathered." The,
writer seems to have mentioned this detail because he wished to indicate
that the air in the room was stuffy from the smoke given off by the lamps:
this condition, along with the hypnotic effect of the pinpoints of light and
the droning of voices, might well cause the youth to fall asleep as he sat
on the window sill.7
We may note that the ambiguity of the word lainmpasi n Roman times
may indicate a double meaning in Revelation 4:5. Describing God's heaven-
ly court, the author says that "from the throne issue flashes of lightning,
and voices and peals of thunder, and before the throne burn seven lampades
of fire, which are the seven spirits of God." The violence of this weather-
image suggests that the lampades should be visualized as torches, yet a first-
century reader xwitha Jewish background would immediately have thought
of the seven lamps on the lampstandi n the temple in Jerusalem.
From lampas one is led to a consideration of the term phanos. The
Johannine story of Jesus' arrest mentions phanoi (the plural of phanos)
along with lampades. In classical Greek phanos, like lampas, had meant
"torch,"b ut in time it came to mean first "lamp"a nd then, by the first cen-
5. One such object which is probably a nursing bottle was found at Samaria in a late Hellenistic
context (see J. W. Crowfoot, et al., Samaria-Sebaste III, p. 377).
6. See H. G. Liddell and R. Scott, A Greek-English L.exicon, s.v. lampas.
7. Note the discussion in F. J. Foakes Jackson and K. Lake, The Beginnings of Christianity, vol.
IV, p. 256.
1966, 1) THE BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST 7
tury A.D., "lantern."sI t is this last meaning which the word has in this
passage. No lanterns seem to have been found in Palestine in contexts
securely dated to the Herodian period, but if lanterns were sometimes
used--as is likely-they were probably much like the specimens of both
earlier and later centuries found from time to time in Palestine and nearby
regions. Such lanterns are roughly cylindrical terracotta vessels with an
opening on one side large enough for a household lamp to be inserted,
its wick facing outward; a ceramic ring- or strap-handle on the top per-
mitted easy carrying.9O ccasionally lanterns may have had built-in lamps.10
Much more elaborate lanterns fabricated of bronze were used throughout
the Roman world, consisting of a cylindrical oil-reservoir with a central
wick and a metal framework into which translucent panels could be in-
serted so that the lantern could throw out light on all sides while the flame
remained protected." Nothing so elaborate has yet been found in Palestine,
but such lanterns were probablyk nown.
Stands for household lamps must have been fairly common in Palestine
during Roman times, for one of Jesus' teachings alludes to a lampstand.
"No one," says Jesus, "after lighting a lamp covers it wvitha vessel, or puts
it under a bed, but puts it on a lampstand [lychni4], that those who enter
may see the light" (Luke 8:16; cf. Matt. 5:15, Mark 4:21 and Luke 11:33).
In classical Greek the accepted term for "lampstand"w as lychnouchos or
lychneion; the word lychnia, although condemned by grammarians, came
into widespread use in Hellenistic times. Rabbinic sources also mention
lampstands, which they designate by the name (literally, "shaft").12
Nothing which could very plausibly be regardepda ams .a5 t lampstand has been
found among Palestinian remains of the Herodian period, perhaps because
-as probably was the case in the Iron Age-lampstands were usually made
of wood and did not survive the ravages of time. Bronze lampstands were
familiar household equipment among wealthy Romans, and doubtless some
metal stands were used in Palestine in Herodian times.
Lamps played a notable part in various religious observances connected
with the home. By this time many Jews had begun to follow the custom of
burning a Sabbath lamp. How old the practice was no one knows, but it
probably took its origin in the fact that, since kindling a fire on the Sab-
bath was forbidden (Exod. 35:3), one who wVishedto have a light on the
8. See W. F. Arndt and F. W. Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, s.v.
phanos. Although phanos might seem to be derived from the verb phain6, "shine," the word
originally designated a little case, then a torch-holder, then a torch and finally a lamp (see A.
Neuburger, The Technical Arts and Sciences of the Ancients, p. 235).
9. Note the Byzantine lantern shown in E. Sellin, Jericho, pl. XLIV, no. A19.
10. Note the Cypriote specimen in J. L. Myres, Handbook of the Cesnola Collections, p. 278, and
the Egyptian lantern in G. Brunton, Qau and Badari III, pl. L, no. 5.
11. A typical specimen is shown in Neuburger, Technical Arts, p. 244, fig. 323.
12. See Shabbat, 44a and the discussion and references given in M. Jastrow, A Dictionary of the
Targumin, the Talmud Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature, s.v. pamit.
8 THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST (Vol. XXIX,
evening of the Sabbathh ad to light the lamp before the Sabbathb egan.
The mid-firstc entury Roman writersS eneca (Epistles 95:47) and Persius
Flaccus (Satires 5.179-184) show familiarityw ith the practice,w hich was
well establisheda mong the Jews of at least some cities, including Rome.
Each week, just beforet he dusk which usheredi n the Sabbath,t he Jewish
housewife lit a special Sabbathl amp, a ner ha-shabbatw, hich she placed
in the window of her house, its nozzle facing the street. Persiusd escribes
the rite intriguinglya, nd all too laconically:
But when Herod'sd ays [i.e., the Sabbath]h ave come, and the
lamps,b earingv iolets and put in the greasyw indows,e mit their
unctiousc loudso f smoke....
The strangea llusion to lamps "carryingv iolets"m ay be based on Persius'
observationt hat lamps were often decoratedw ith floral designs.'"I t is
impossiblet o determinee xactly which artisticm otif Persiush ad in mind;
violets as such do not appearo n Palestinianl amps of any period,n or on
lampsf rome lsewherei n the Mediterranearne gion.
The Sabbathl amp apparentlyd id not have to be of any particular
form,t houghe speciallye legantS abbathl ampsm ay have been used by some
Jews who could afford them. The lamp did, however,h ave to be kindled
in a decorousm anner.T he Talmud gives many detailed regulationsc on-
cerning this lamp (Shabbat,2 0b-36a), some of which are undoubtedlya s
old as the first century. The rabbis recommendedl inen for wicks.
Old cloth could be used, providedi t was ceremoniallyc lean; hence users
often twistedo ld cloth to annul its previousc ondition( Shabbat,2 8b). The
substancesp rohibitedf or use as wicks were, accordingt o the Mishnah,
lekesh (ccdar bark), hosen (tow, crude flax?), kallak (a mossy plant),
bast, "desertw ick" (a kind of woolly weed), seaweed, and 'es (stalks).
Most vegetable oils, chiefly olive oil, were allowed as fuel; substances
prohibitedw ere pitch, wax, qiqay&n(c astor oil; cf. Egyptiank iki), sacred
oil, tail fat, tallow and balsam.T hese lists of prohibitionsa re important
becauset hey suggestw hat a wide varietyo f substancesw as used for wicks
and fuel in householdl amps.
Becauset he Sabbathl amp had to burn longer without attention,t han
did the ordinaryl amp, some users devised clever ways of providings uffi-
cient oil. One practicew as to place beside a lamp a bowl filled with oil,
with a wick or cord running from it into the lamp; by capillarya ction
the oil from the bowl fed the lamp'sw ick (Mishnah, Shabbat,2 9b). The
Talmudic rabbis also know of the practice-unattested,s o far, by arch-
aeologicale vidence,a nd possiblyl imited to MesopotamianJ ews-by which
13. F. Landsberger suggests essentially this explanation in Hebrew Llnion College Annual, vol.
XXVII (1956), pp. 387-415.
1966, 1) THE BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST 9
a potter attached a supplementary oil-container shaped somewhat like an
eggshell, on the top of a lamp (Shabbat, 29b).14
Lamps were also used in household rites connected with annual festi-
vals. The Mishnah mentions that lamps were lit in the home on the eve of
the Day of Atonement (Pesahim, 53b). It was also customary to light a
lamp during the Hannukah festival and place it outside one's door or
window (Shabbat, 21b). Before the beginning of the Passover, the house-
holder sometimes took a lamp and conducted a ceremonial search through
the house seeking to find and destroy any leaven which might be in it
(Pesahim 2a, 7b ff.). The dates at which these practices were begun, and
the extent to which they may have been followed in Palestine, must remain
uncertain, but it is likely that Palestinian Jews in Roman times practiced
at least some of them. Palestinians, continued, of course, to use lamps in
festivities, where they were evidences of conviviality and security. Jesus'
story of the ten maidens has already given us an example of the use of lamps
in weddings. The writer of Revelation paraphrasesw ith approval a passage
in Jeremiah which associates lamplight with gladness, marriage and house-
hold activities (Rev. 18:22-23; cf. Jer. 25:10).
The prominent use which ceremonial lights played in the Jewish reli-
gion indicates that the users, like their ancestors, saw in lamps something
more than a practical means of illumination. The lamp was symbolical of
the sun and life. In this sentiment pagans and Jews shared certain presup-
positions, though the specific expressions which they gave to their ideas
differed. At one point in his Metamorphoses Apuleius has his hero Lucius
declare that "this [house-hold] lamp . . . is but a small light, and made by
the hands of men, yet it has a remembrance of that great and heavenly
Light as of its Parent" (2.12) He goes on to refer to the widespread belief
that lamps, being sparks of the Divine Light (the Deity) could be used
for prophecy. "By its divine spirit of prophecy," he says, the lamp "both
knows and shows what He will do in the skies above." Pagan soothsayers
often practiced lychnomanteia, divination by means of observing the way a
lamp's flame burned (cf. Metamorphoses2 .11).15
Out of respect for the lamp as a sign of greater things, some pagans
avoided extinguishing a lamp, preferring rather to let it go out of its own
accord (see Plutarch, Qu, est. Rom., 281F, Quwest. Conviv. 702D). Since
this practice was wasteful, some householders may have compromised by
placing a bowl upside down over the lamp to extinguish it through depri-
vation of oxygen. This practice may have been followed in Palestine-
perhaps, as some have suggested, not out of superstition but out of a desire
14. See further in S. Kraus, Talmudische Archaeologie, vol. I, p. 69.
15. Walters discusses this practice in Ancient Pottery, vol. II, p. 398.
10 THE BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST (Vol. XXIX,
to avoid the unpleasant smoke and splattering caused by blowing out the
lamp. One thinks of Jesus' statement that one does not light a lamp and
then place it under a bushel measure (Matt. 5:15, Luke 11.33), a passage
which some interpretersh ave taken to be an allusion to this method of ex-
tinguishing a lamp;"1 this explanation does not, however, clarify all of
the details of this saying.
The extent to which the ordinary Palestinian Jews of Roman times
accepted lychnomianteia and similar practices cannot well be determined,
since the crasser beliefs about lamps seldom crop out in the surviving Jew-
ish texts; but when one encounters in the Mishnah a reference to the ex-
tinguishing of a lamp out of fear of an evil spirit (Shabbat, 29b), or to the
notion that marital relations carried out by lamplight produced epileptic
children (Gemara, Pesalimn, 112b), one is obliged to admit that there must
have been a good deal of popular superstition about lamps among the Jews.'7
Jesus indicates knowledge of at least some of the popular ideas about
the symbolical importance of lamps. Accept the old belief (cf. Prov. 21:4)
that the human eve radiates a brightness from within, he teaches.
"The eve is the lamp of your body. When your eye is sound, also your
whole body is full of light. Therefore be careful lest the light in you
be darkness. If then your whole body is full of light, having no dark
part, it will be wholly bright, as when a lamp with its rays gives you
light" (Luke 11:34-36, parallel Matt. 6:22-23).
This teaching indicates the ease with which one could move from the
notion of the eve as a lamp to the idea of the whole person as a lamp. One
of a group of short sayings of Jesus indicates this broaderu se of the imagery
of the lamp:
"Youa re the light of the world. A city set on a hill cannot be hid. Neither
do men light a lamp and put it under a bushel-measure,b ut on a stand,
and it gives light to all in the house. Let your light so shine before men
that they may see your good works and give glory to your Father who
is in heaven" (Matt. 5:14-16; parallel Luke 11:33).
This teaching is similar to a passage in the Talmud which enjoins, "Let
your light shine forth like a lamp" (Shabbat, 116b). The Fourth Evangelist
describes the prophet John the Baptist as "a burning and shining lamp"
(John 5:35). In like manner one of the authors of the apocryphal II Esdras,
writing around the end of the first century A.D., describes the prophet
Ezra as "a lamp in a dark place" (II Esdras 12:42).
Although these sayings are clearly based upon the familiar household
16. See especially J. Jeremias, The Parables of Jesus, pp. 96f.
17. This latter superstition probably arose not so much out of belief in the magical power of
lamplight as out of excessive prudery.