The Biblical Archaeologist - Vol.18, N.2

27 Pages·1955·3.31 MB·English

by  American Schools of Oriental Research

BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST
Published By
The American Schools of Oriental Research
(Jerusalem and Baghdad)
Drawer 93A, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn.
Vol. XVIII MAY, 1955 No. 2
Fig. 1. The Monastery of Simonopetra, "Rock of Simon',. at Mt. Athos is perched on a narrow
pedestal of rock that emerges out of an almost perpendicular wooded ravine rising 333
meters up from the sea. (Photo by J. E. Keshishoglou)
Contents
Operation Microfilm at Mt. Athos. by Ernest W. Saunders ................................ 22
The Stevens' Reconstruction of the Solomonic Temple, by G. E. Wright .................... 43
News and Books by F. M. C. and G. E. W. .................................................45
22 THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST (Vol. XVIII,
The Biblical Archaeologist is published quarterly (February, May, September, December)
by the American Schools of Oriental Research. Its purpose is to meet the need for a readable,
non-technical, yet thoroughly reliable account of archaeological discoveries as they are related
to the Bible.
Editors: G. Ernest Wright and Frank M. Cross. Jr., with the assistance of Floyd V. Filson
in New Testament matters. Editorial correspondence should be sent to one of the above
at 2330 N. Halsted St., Chicago 14, III.
Editorial Board: W. F. Albright, Johns Hopkins University; Millar Burrows, Yale University.
Subscription Price: $1.00 per year, payable to the American Schools of Oriental Research,
Drawer 93A, Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. Ten or more subscriptions for group
use, mailed and billed to one address, $0.50 per year for each. Subscriptions run
for the calendar year. IN ENGLAND: seven shillings, six pence per year, payable to
B. H. Blackwell, Ltd., Broad St., Oxford.
BACK NUMBERS: Available at 35c each, or $1.35 per volume.
Entered as second-class matter, October 2, 1942, at the Post Office at New Haven,
Connecticut, under the Act of March 3, 1879.
OperationM icrofilmA t Mt. Athos
Ernest W. Saunders
Garrett Biblfctal Institute
A remote headland, the northeastern-most of three fingers of the
province of Chalcidice in Macedonia, reaches out from the coastline,
and clutches at the Aegean Sea. Overland it is a trip of 130 kilometers
from Salonica to the Aegean port of Ierissos at the northern and main-
land tip of the peninsula. Here for a thousand years there have been
communities of monks of the Eastern Orthodox Church who have de-
voted themselves to the disciplines of the contemplative life, and, in
former times, have practiced the expert arts of manuscript copying, book
illumination, and the mural painting for which the culture of the
Byzantine Empire was justly famous. Perched on precipitous slopes or
settled in upland ravines, the twenty ruling monasteries of Mt. Athos,
with their dependencies, represented at one time a center of learning
which exercised a strong influence on the life of the vast empire girdling
the Mediterranean. A fifteenth century traveler in the east wrote of
his visit: "Here, in lush valleys, teem bees, figs, and olives. The inmates
of the monasteries weave cloth, stitch shoes, and make nets. One turns
the spindle of a handloom through the wool; another twists a basket
of twigs. From time to time, at stated hours, all essay to praise God.
And peace reigns among them, always and forever."1
Today their libraries contain thousands of manuscripts dating from
the medieval period and transmitting to the present day the religious
writings, ancient classics, and other documents of learning fiom the ages
of Athens and Byzantium. With the completion of the Sinai and Jerusalem
microfilming projects of 1949 and 1950,2 these monasteries of "the
Jerusalem of 'Orthodoxy" now hold in store the largest remaining group
of known biblical and patristic manuscripts which have not yet been
explored. The total collection is of staggering proportion: about 11,000
1955,2 ) THE BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST 23
medieval manuscripts,o f which nearly 1000 alone are New Testament
texts. The gnawings of the tooth of time and the hazards of fire and
neglect, no less than the appalling destructivenesso f modern warfare,
pose serious threats to the survival and preservationo f these valuable
collections.
For a period of six months,f rom December 11, 1952 to May 24, 1953,
the present writer worked with a Greek assistant in seven of these
Athonite libraries,s electing and microfilmings ome of the most valuable
manuscripts.T he project was made possible under the terms of a U.S.
Educational Exchange Grant, assisted by the Library of Congress and
the International Greek New Testament Project.3 Grateful acknowl-
edgement is also made to members of the Mutual Security Agency, the
U.S. Information Service, and the hierarchy of the Greek Orthodox
Church,w hose counsel and good officesw ere of invaluablea id in making
this microfilmingp roject possible. The film collection of 263 documents,
now domiciled at the Library of Congress, has already been put into
service by scholars working with the internationalp roject to furnish a
new critical apparatust o the Greek New Testament. A checklist of the
manuscripts microfilmed will be published shortly by the Library of
Congress.
1. The Monasteries of Athos
Documented history of the monastic communities of Agion Oros
traces the beginnings of organized community life back to the tenth
century when St. Athanasiusl.e ft a laura (or lavra, an assembly or gath-
ering) on Mt. Kyninas on the borders of Bithynia and Paphlagonia to
found the monasteryo f Lavra on the southernt ip of Athos. Earlier, per-
haps, there had been individual hermits living in separate cells on this
mountainous peninsula, and in the ninth century John Colobos had
founded a community on the northern and mainland end of the penin-
sula. Since the time of Basil of Caesarea, who established a lavra at
Annesi on the river Iris in Pontus, many monasteriesh ad been founded
in the mountainous districts of Asia Minor, where individual moun-
tains were consecrated to the worship of God. Meteora in Thessaly
and Athos in Macedonia became European counterparts.H ere at Athos
in 963 Athanasiuse stablished a religious communityu nder the patronage
of his boyhood friend, the Emperor Nicephoras Phocas II (963-9), a
1. Chrltoforo Buondelmontl (1420). Quoted in R. Byron. The Station (London: John Lehmann.
1949). P. 6.
2. See K. W. Clark. "Exploring the Manuscripts of Sinai and Jerusalem". BA, XVI (May.
1951). pp. 22-43.
2. Bee M. M. Parvis, "The International Project to Establish a New Critical Apparatus of
the "eek New Testament". Croser Quarterly, XXVII (Oct.. 1950). pp. 301-30S.
24 THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST (Vol. XVIII,
community in which the life of prayer took chief place and the virtues
of piety, obedience, self-discipline and enthusiasm for the task were
practiced according to the reformulation of the Ascetica of Basil, made
by Theodore the Studite. The Monastery of the Most Great Lavra, as
it came to be called, was followed by the establishment of three other
communities in the same century: Ivron, for centuries a mixed group
of Georgians and Greeks, Vatopedi and Xeropotamou. During the fol-
lowing centuries a number of communities sprang up. Of the twenty
which survive today, eight were founded in the eleventh century; two
in the twelfth; one in the thirteenth; four in the fourteenth; and one
in the sixteenth. By the edict of the Patriarch Jeremiah in 1574 the
number of ruling houses was fixed at twenty: the Most Great Lavra,
Vatopedi, Iviron, Chiliandari (Yugoslavian), Dionysiou, Pantokrator,
Xeropotamou, Zographou (Bulgarian), Koutloumousi, Docheiariou,
Karakallou, Philotheou, Simonopetra, Stavroniketa, Hagiou Paulou,
Xenophontos, Gregoriou, Esphigmenou, Panteleimon (Russian) and
Kastamonitou.4 Numerous dependencies, communities of cells known as
skitai or private houses called kellia, are scattered over the forty mile
length of the peninsula.
The older Rule of Athanasius provided for a community of property
and a careful regulation of the day's hours for prayer, study, work, meals
and sleep. In the abbot or hegoumenos, elected by the brethren, absolute
authority was vested, though today his power is limited by an advisory
council. Meals were taken in common, clothing supplied from a common
stock, and each monk was assigned special duties in the daily life of
the community. The rule prohibiting female animals on the peninsula-
the source of the mountain's greatest publicity-may perhaps be traced
back to Theodore of Studius who ordered them from his monastery in
Constantinople. A declension in the discipline of the coenobitic pattern
resulting from a weakening of the older traditions occurred in the
fifteenth century, when the system was known as idiorrhytmicism was
introduced. In the nine monasteries of this type at Athos private pos-
sessions may be accumulated by the monks; the community is organized
in a "family" plan wi'th a senior monk served by apprentices of junior
grade. Common meals are taken only three times a year, and the entire
society is governed by a council of the senior monks, the epitropoi.
4. For a history of Athonite monasticism see: F. W. Hasluck, Athos and Its Monasteries
(1924); K. Lake, The Early Days of Monasticism on Mt. Athos (1909); F. Spunda. Der
Heilige Berg Athos, Landschaft und Legende (1928); I. SmSyrnakis, The Holy Mountain (in
Greek) (1903); and P. Meyer, Die Haupturkunden fuer die Geschichte der Athoskloeestei
(1894).
1955,2 ) THE BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST 25
It is evident that the relaxation of the rules of obedience and the ad-
mittance of more secular concerns about property may lead, as fre-
quently happens, to a noticeable spiritual apathy, manifested even in
the daily religious rites.
The republican government of the Holy Mountain, functioning
Fig. 2. The Monastery of Dionysiou was founded in the fourteenth century. The tiers of over-
hanging balconies and the terraced gardens below the foundation may be disoerned.
uninterruptedf or a longer time than any in existence today, is divided
into -a legislature,o r Holy Synod, with representativesf rom each of the
twenty ruling monasteries,a nd an executive committeeo f four, the Holy
Epistasia, presided over by the Protepistates, the chief monk of the
community.B efore the Epistasia of Karyes,c apital of the little republic,
each new visitor to Athos must present his credentials and receive in
return the precious documento r diamonitirionw hich alone will give him
26 THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST (Vol. XVIII,
access to the monasteries of Athos and commend him to their
hospi-
tality. To this executive committee I presented my authorizationf rom
the Greek Ministryo f Foreign Affairs, and letters of introductionf rom
the Metropolitano f Salonica, Panteleimon, and the Patriarch Athena-
goras, "by the mercy of God Archbishopo f Constantinople,N ew Rome,
and EcumenicalP atriarch."M y diamonitirioni nvoked the assistancea nd
hospitality of the twenty Holy and Venerable Monasterieso f Athos "to
the accomplishmento f his holy purpose to study and photographc odices,
manuscriptsa nd holy treasures."U pon it the famous seal, each quarter
held privately by a member of the Epistasia, was affixed and the date
November3 0, 1952, stamped. By more worldly reckoningi t was actually
the thirteentho f December but Athonitem onasteries,w ith one exception,
continuet o follow the old Julianc alendara nd a Byzantined aily horology.
In the days ahead this document was to prove a magic key to the
librarys torehousesa nd vaults.
By the Treaty of Berlin drawn up in 1878 the autonomy of Athos
was legally recognized although even under the suzeraintyo f the Byzan-
tines and the Turks a self-rule practically independent of imperial
control had been granted. Following the end of Muslim rule, the tiny
theocracy passed into Greek hands, but by the Treaty of Lausanne in
1923, Greece was granted a limited sovereignty and pledged to respect
the earlier provisions of the Treaty of Berlin. In 1927, the Hellenic
governmentf ormally ratified the final draft of the Athonite constitution,
guaranteeing its limited sovereignty and the inalienability of its soil.
Through the changes of nine centuries, Athos has witnessed cycles of
growth and decline. Today there is cause for serious concern over the
declining population: 2450 in 1953 as compared with 5000 in 1927 or
7000 in the early part of the nineteenth century. Yet in the face of that
unbroken nine centuries of history one may well be cautious about
soundingt he death knell for this monasticr epublic.
The geographicalr emoteness of Athos has not deterred great num-
bers of visitorsf rom comingt o her shoreso ver the years. Some have come
as professionalt ravelers,o thers as diplomaticp ersonnel,t he vast majority
as devout laymen of the Eastern rite, and finally as scholars of the
academic world.5E ven as her treasurese voked the cupidity of medieval
pirates against whom the monks defended themselves with fierce valor,
so the informationo f her priceless books and relics stirred the greed of
more sophisticatedp irateerso f recent times. If the simple monks today
5. A tabulation of the guest register of Vatopedi showed some 1740 visitors during the year
1952!
1955,2 ) THE BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST 27
tend to over-value their possessions, it is pardonable reaction to the
exploitations of crafty visitors who shamelessly thieved many manu-
scripts and objects of art. Uspensky and other unprincipled scholars
found their way here and cut pages of script and miniaturesf rom the
codices and took them away to be sold. Even a traveler like Robert
Curzon, while openly bargaining with the monks, took advantage of
their cultural ignorance in 1837 to buy at Xenophontos for twenty
pounds the magnificentc opy of the Gospels bearing the signatureo f one
of the Comnenus emperorsw hich today, with other purchases, is in the
British Museum. Already in the latter half of the sixteenth century
Thevet reportedt hat the good books were gone.
Fig. 3. At work in the library of Dionyviou. Left to right: E. W. Saunders. J. E. Keshishoglou,
and Father Evthymios, the librarian. (Photo by J. . Keshishoglou)
Russian scholars were among the earliest visitors to Athos. In 1726
and 1744 V. G. Barskit raveled among the monasteries,r eportingl ater on
the treasures he saw. He was followed in 1842 by Archimandrite
Uspensky, who compiled and published the first catalog of documents,
and by P. I. Sevastianov,w ho did the earliest photographingo f manu-
scripts during 1857a nd 1859-60.G ermans cholars,a lert to this opportunity
to study Byzantine culture, ecclesiastical art and the textual history of
the Bible began to come to the Holy Mount in the nineteenth century:
J. J. Fallmerayer( 1840); the jurist C. E. Zachariaev . Lingenthal (1840);
28 THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST (Vol. XVIII,
the art historian H. Brockhaus (1888), and C. R. Gregory (1886, 1902,
1906).6 At the turn of the century (1899) K. Lake visited these libraries
and photographed some of the earliest manuscripts.7D uring and im-
mediately after World War I the renowned art historian, Professor
G. Millet of Paris, worked at Athos and later presented to the scholarly
world his matchless photographs of the most important frescoes of
Athonite churches and refectories. A definitive study of Byzantine book
illustrationsh as been the product of Princeton'sK . Weitzmann'ss everal
extended visits to Athos. Most recently a Rosenberg-sponsoredG erman
expedition under the leadership of the eminent Byzantinologist F.
Doelger of Munich spent several months at Athos in 1942 compiling
some 1800 photographs of the buildings, frescoes, ikons, art objects,
manuscriptsa nd other documents.8O ur expedition of 1952-3, however,
resulted in the largest single collection of photographs ever taken at
Athos. With the use of a portablem icrofilmc amer+lao aned by the Library
of Congress,p owered by a portable electric plant, we were able to copy
the texts of 211 Greek and Georgian manuscriptso f the Bible ranging
in age from the sixth to the fifteenth century, and selected portions of
52 others containingd ocuments of the apocryphalN ew Testament, writ-
ings of John of Damascus, Theophylact of Bulgaria, and various books
of Byzantinem usic and letters.
2. Microfilming Manuscripts
Our work commenced at the ancient monasteryo f Vatopedi, a sea-
coast monastery located about the midpoint of the eastern side of the
peninsula, a four hour trip from Ierissos by fishing boat. For the next
thirty-sixd ays we were to face the diffcult task of selecting and copying
about sixty of the most valuable manuscripts from the library's vast
collection, haunted at every step by the realization that such an oppor-
tunity as we had might not be repeated in a long while. The library,
located in an ancient tower, as is customary among the Athinite mon-
asteries, provides excellent storage facilities for its well-bound and
carefully kept books, but it was incredibly chilly during these winter
months. The kindly epilropoi would not heed our assurances that we
6. See C. F. Gregory. Textkritik des Neuen Testaments (Leipzig: J. C. Hinricha' Buchhand-
lung. 19Q0-09). 3 vols.
7. See K. Lake. Texts from Mt. Atmos (Studla Biblica et Eeelesiastles), Vol. V. Pt. II
(Oxford, 1902).
8. Cf. the detailed study of the monastic constitutions typaes, published by F. Doelger, Au
den Sehatzkammern des Helligen Berges (Munich: F. Brulckmann Verlag, 1948), 2 vols.,
and the popularized report of the expeditions with a splendid gallery of 188 photographs:
Doelger (Ed ) Mbnchaslsnd Athrs (Municht F. Bruckman Verlar. 1945).
1955, 2) THE BIBLICALA RCHAEOLOGIST 29
could work there nevertheless and insisted on transportingt he books
we chose to a small heated room where, under the benign supervision
of Father Gennadios, the librarian, we worked on a seven hour daily
schedule. Here in this idiorrhythmicm onastery of about fifty men the
day began at five o'clock with the singing of the Liturgy, following
which we were permitted to enter the library to select our books for
the day's microfilming. So obliging was our aged supervisor that he
remained with us during the mid-afternoonv esper service so that we
might continuet o work without pause. Our work schedule varied accord-
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Fig. 4. Last page of the Chrysostom commentary on Paul's letters (Vatop. 326) with signature
of the scribe Joasaph, fcrmerly the Emperor John VI Cantacuzene (1341-54).
ing to the season of the year and the pattern of life at each monastery,
but everywhere courtesy toward the foreign kathegetes and an earnest
willingness to facilitate his work prevailed. At the Lavra, during April
and May, we worked through the morning from six-thirty until ten-
thirty. After a four hour intermission, the library was reopened by
Father Panteleimon and the selection and photographingo f the manu-
scripts continued until evening. Mechanical breakdowns of our equip-
ment, the frequent Holy Days, business sessions of the symboulion,
sickness of the librarians,a nd the occasional visits of parties and dig-
nitaries posed further occupational hazards, materially reducing our
working time and trying our patience. At Vatopedi the work of two
30 THE BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGIST (Vol. XVIII,
weeks had to be painfully repeated when word finally reached us from
the photoduplication laboratories of the Library of Congress that an
incorrect camera adjustment had thrown all the films slightly out of
focus. An average day might see the filming of six or seven manu-
scripts. While the writer recorded physical descriptionsa nd deciphered
scribal colophons,J ohn Keshishoglou,o ur Greek assistantf rom Salonica,
completed the film record of the previous manuscripts passed from
the editor'st able to the cameral ens. At night, test strips were developed
and examined carefully by flickering kerosene or candle light. At inter-
vals of three to four weeks, the exposed film was carried back to our
headquartersi n Salonica from whence it was flown by diplomatic air
pouch to Athens and thence to Washingtonf or processing.T he extreme
difficulty of transportingo ur heavy equipment and supplies over the
torturous mountain trails of the peninsula forced us to confine our
microfilmingt o the coastalm onasteries,a lthoughc opying by hand camera
was done at some of the inland foundations. Work at Vatopedi was
followed by rdsidencesa t Iviron, Pantokrator,S tavroniketa,L avra and
finally Dionysiou.
Requests for special materials from nine scholars and institutions,
in America and Europe, were received and fulfilled. In particulart he
abbot of a GermanB enedictine monasterya t Ettal, Father Johannes M.
Hoeck, had asked us to photograph a number of the writings of John
Chrysostomf or a definitive critical edition of that Father'sw orks which
his community is preparing. Byzantine liturgical manuscripts with
musical notations were filmed for ProfessorO liver Strunk of Princeton,
who spent some time with us at Lavra in the spring. Canon Maurice
Briere of France requested the copying of some Georgian manuscripts
at Iviron to complete his work on a critical text of the Gospel of Luke
in the Georgian version. The following table presents the statistics of
the microfilmingo peration.
ManuscriptsM icrofilmeda t Mt. Athos,1 952-539
New Testament 156 Greek;4 Georgian 160
New Testament (passim) 2
Lectionaries 39
Old Testament 1
Protevangelium of James (passim) 9
9. These manuscripts are now part of the Library of Congress' collection. Positive copies
are obtainable from Mr. Donald C. Holmes, Chief, Photoduplication Service, Library of
of Congresq Washinirton 25, D.C.