The Best of Agroecology

40 Pages·2002·3.54 MB·English

t h e n e w s l e t t e r o f
C a l i f o r n i a C e r t i f i e d O r g a n i c F a r m e r s
Volume XIX, Number 3 Creating a Living Standard for Healthy Food Fall 2002
The Best of Agroecology
MIGUEL A. ALTIERI
UC-Berkeley (page 2)
STEVE GLIESSMAN UC-Santa Cruz (page 6)
$3.50
PROFILE: TWODOGFARM APPLES~FALL’SFRESHFLAVOR ORGANICCOSMETICS VISITCCOF’SNEWWEBSITE!
page 10 page 12 page 14 page 18
of paid staff issuing a federal license on gram. There are now three distinct
P ’ behalf of USDA. CCOF entities:
RESIDENT S
1.California Certified Organic Farmers
CCOF has recently formed a new entity
C (CCOF)Inc.
ORNER to respond effectively to the intervention
2.CCOF Foundation
of USDA into organic agriculture. As of
3.CCOF Certification Services LLC.
October 21, 2002, any farmer or handler
with greater than $5,000 in sales who The function of California Certified
A G
ROWING uses the term organic must be certified by Organic Farmers, Inc. will be to act as a
a USDA accredited organic certifier using classic trade association with an emphasis
L
EADER AT
organic standards written on advocacy for govern-
30 YEARS by USDA. One of the mental policies that pro-
A strong, effective voice
requirements of USDA’s tect and encourage
O
LD National Organic Program organic agriculture. A
advocating for a healthy
is that no certification strong, effective voice
By Brian Leahy, CCOF President agent may have on its advocating for a healthy
Board any member who is farm economy based on farm economy based on
ITHIN THE SPAN OF A LIFETIME also certified by that same biological agriculture
agriculture went from a biological-
certification agent. CCOF’s biological agriculture must must develop if agricul-
based, wealth generating activity at
first attempt to meet the ture is to survive eco-
the center of society to an economic bas-
conflict of interest require- develop if agriculture nomically in the quickly
ket case at the margins of society, reliant
ment was rejected by changing world of food
upon toxic chemistry and off-farm inputs.
USDA, and CCOF was politics. There is a very
is to survive economically
CCOF was formed to return agriculture
told to separate the Board definite push by the
to an organic, biological system that fairly
from certification or be WTO and international
rewards producers and values the culture in the quickly changing
denied USDA accredita- banks to have poor
within agriculture. CCOF was also formed
tion. The new entity is nations earn hard cur-
to address another radical change that world of food politics.
called CCOF Certification rency by feeding rich
concurrently took place—the consumer’s
Services LLC. It is a lim- nations. At my local
changing relationship to food. Consumers
ited liability company food store, I just pur-
went from eating primarily locally pro-
wholly owned by CCOF. chased dried apricots from CCOF mem-
duced food, eaten in season, and prepared
The certification LLC will conduct ber Big Tree Organic Farms that were
at home to eating highly processed food,
organic certification. A management twice the cost of the organic Turkish apri-
prepared and eaten away from home,
committee appointed by the CCOF cots in the adjacent bin. Without govern-
rarely produced locally or eaten in season.
Board will govern it. All profits from the ment polices that encourage and foster
There have been many changes within
certification LLC will flow to CCOF. The local agriculture, how will farmers survive
organic agriculture and within CCOF
certification LLC will pay CCOF for the the competition from China, Chile, or
itself during the thirty years of CCOF’s
use of the CCOF seal, and if you are cer- Africa? CCOF needs to become the vehi-
existence. Organic agriculture has gone
tified by CCOF you will be able to use cle to change agriculture policy in the
from being viewed as a fringe movement
the CCOF seal. This new organization United States. As organic agriculture
to a regulated industry under the control
will meet USDA requirements and will grows, the premiums received will dwin-
of the United States Department of Agri-
allow certification to focus on the new dle even more than they already have. We
culture (USDA). And CCOF has gone
complexities of certification. It should will never see a free market in food, but
from being a loosely connected collection
strengthen the CCOF certification pro- we will see the federal government spend
of volunteers to a centralized organization
billions of dollars on agricultural sup-
ports. Some European nations are already
placing a value on the environmental
OUR PURPOSE effects of organic agriculture and paying
CCOF’s purpose is to promote and support organic agriculture in California farmers for their contributions to the
and elsewhere through: environment instead of paying them to
• A premier organic certification program for growers, processors, handlers, flood an already flooded market. To
and retailers. become the dominant force in agricul-
• Programs to increase awareness of and demand for certified organic product ture, CCOF must lead the way in effec-
and to expand public support for organic agriculture. tive political action.
• Advocacy for governmental policies that protect and encourage organic agriculture.
30 Years continues page 26
Conservation is ethically sound. T C
ABLE OF ONTENTS
It is rooted
FEATUREARTICLE, Agroecology: Principles and Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
in our love of the land, AGROECOLOGY, Making the Conversion to Sustainable Agroecosystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
our respect PROFILE, Two Dog Farm.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
for the rights of others, FOCUSONFOOD, Apples~Fall’s Fresh Flavor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
YOURBODY, Organic Cosmetics and You . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
our devotion to the rule of law.
AGRICULTURE& EDUCATION, Organic Agriculture Taking Root at Cal Poly, SLO . . . . . 16
~Lyndon Baines Johnson WORLDWIDEWEB, Organic Integrity Online~The New CCOFWebsite . . . . . . . . . . . 18
NEWSBRIEFS, Glassy-winged Sharpshooter and Other News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
New CCOF Supporting Member THEGE REPORT, News from the Genetic Engineering Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
ASKAMIGO, The Ever Present Gopher Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Thank you to JOHNR. SINGLETONwho recently
became a Sustaining Supporting Member of CERTIFICATIONCORNER, International Trade and The National Organic Program . …. . . . . 30
CCOF. Your donation and those of others that MATERIALS, Acronym Update: CCOF, USDA/NOP, NOSB & OMRI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
we receive every day will help us to continue
ADDITIONSTOTHEOMRI BRANDNAMEPRODUCTSLIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
our educational efforts to expand public
CCOF CERTIFIEDOPERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
awareness of and demand for certified
organic product, and to help promote govern- BUSINESSRESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
mental policies that encourage and protect CLASSIFIEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
organic agriculture.
CALENDAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
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need to propose major adjustments in con- chemical and energy inputs, emphasizing
F ventional agriculture to make it more envi- complex agricultural systems in which eco-
EATURE
ronmentally, socially and economically logical interactions and synergisms between
A viable and compatible. Several possible biological components provide the mecha-
RTICLE
solutions to the environmental problems nisms for the systems to sponsor their own
created by capital and technology intensive soil fertility, productivity, and crop protec-
farming systems have been proposed and tion(Altieri and Rosset 1995).
research is currently in progress to evaluate
AGROECOLOGY PRINCIPLESOFAGROECOLOGY
alternative systems (Gliessman 1998). The
In the search to reinstate more ecological
PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES main focus lies on the reduction or elimi- rationale into agricultural production, sci-
FOR DESIGNING SUSTAINABLE nation of agrochemical inputs through entists and developers have disregarded a
changes in management to assure adequate
FARMING SYSTEMS key point in the development of a more
plant nutrition and plant protection
self-sufficient and sustaining agriculture:
through organic nutrient sources and inte-
a deep understanding of the nature of agro-
grated pest management, respectively.
ecosystems and the principles by which
Although hundreds of more environmen- they function. Given this limitation, agro-
tally prone research projects and techno- ecology has emerged as the discipline that
logical development attempts have taken provides the basic ecological principles for
place, and many lessons have been learned, how to study, design and manage agroe-
the thrust is still highly technological, cosystems that are both productive and
By Miguel A. Altieri
University of California, Berkeley emphasizing the suppression of limiting natural resource conserving, and that are
factors or the symptoms that mask an ill also culturally sensitive, socially just and
THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE producing agroecosystem. The prevalent economically viable(Altieri 1995).
agriculture is a relatively recent philosophy is that pests, nutrient deficien-
Agroecology goes beyond a one-dimensional
response to the decline in the qual- cies or other factors are the cause of low
view of agroecosystems—their genetics,
ity of the natural resource base associated productivity, as opposed to the view that
agronomy, edaphology, and so on—to
with modern agriculture (McIsaac and pests or nutrients only become limiting if
embrace an understanding of ecological
Edwards 1994). Today, the question of conditions in the agroecosystem are not in
and social levels of co-evolution, structure
agricultural production has evolved from equilibrium (Carrol et al. 1990). For this
and function. Instead of focusing on one
a purely technical one to a more complex reason, there still prevails a narrow view
particular component of the agroecosys-
question characterized by social, cultural, that specific causes affect productivity, and
tem, agroecology emphasizes the interrelat-
political, and economic dimensions. The overcoming the limiting factor via new
edness of all agroecosystem components
concept of sustainability, although contro- technologies, continues to be the main
and the complex dynamics of ecological
versial and diffuse due to existing conflict- goal. This view has diverted agriculturists
processes (Vandermeer 1995).
ing definitions and interpretations of its from realizing that limiting factors only
meaning, is useful because it captures a set represent symptoms of a more systemic Agroecosystems are communities of plants
of concerns about agriculture which is con- disease inherent to unbalances within the and animals interacting with their physical
ceived as the result of the co-evolution of agroecosystem and from an appreciation and chemical environments that have been
socioeconomic and natural systems (Reijntjes of the context and complexity of agroeco- modified by people to produce food, fiber,
et al. 1992). A wider understanding of the logical processes thus underestimating the fuel and other products for human con-
agricultural context requires the study root causes of agricultural limitations sumption and processing. Agroecology is
between agriculture, the global environ- (Altieri et al. 1993). the holistic study of agroecosystems,
ment and social systems given that agri- including all environmental and human
On the other hand, the science of agroecol-
cultural development results from the elements. It focuses on the form, dynamics,
ogy, which is defined as the application of
complex interaction of a multitude of fac- and functions of their interrelationships
ecological concepts and principles to the
tors. It is through this deeper understand- and the processes in which they are
design and management of sustainable
ing of the ecology of agricultural systems involved. An area used for agricultural pro-
agroecosystems, provides a framework to
that doors will open to new management duction, e.g.a field, is seen as a complex
assess the complexity of agroecosystems
options more in tune with the objectives system in which ecological processes found
(Altieri 1995). The idea of agroecology is
of a truly sustainable agriculture. under natural conditions also occur, e.g.
to go beyond the use of alternative prac-
nutrient cycling, predator/prey inter-
The sustainability concept has prompted tices and to develop agroecosystems with
actions, competition, symbiosis, and suc-
much discussion and has promoted the the minimal dependence on high agro-
cessional changes. Implicit in
Page 2 TheNewsletter of CCOF
agroecological research is the idea that, by tivity, stability, and resiliency within the and balance pest-natural enemy popula-
understanding these ecological relation- farm system, depending on the local tions. The strategy exploits the comple-
ships and processes, agroecosystems can be opportunities, resource constraints and, in mentarities and synergisms that result from
manipulated to improve production and to most cases, on the market. The ultimate the various combinations of crops, tree,
produce more sustainably, with fewer nega- goal of agroecological design is to integrate and animals in spatial and temporal
tive environmental or social impacts and components so that overall biological effi- arrangements (Altieri 1994).
fewer external inputs (Altieri 1995). ciency is improved, biodiversity is pre-
In essence, the optimal behavior of agroe-
served, and the agroecosystem productivity
The design of such systems is based on the cosystems depends on the level of interac-
and its self-sustaining capacity is main-
application of the following ecological tions between the various biotic (living)
tained. The goal is to design a quilt of
principles(Reijntjes et al. 1992) (see also and abiotic (non-living) components. By
agroecosystems within a landscape unit,
Table 1): assembling a functional biodiversity it is
each mimicking the structure and function
1.Enhance recycling of biomass and opti- possible to initiate synergisms which subsi-
of natural ecosystems.
mizing nutrient availability and balanc- dize agroecosystem processes by providing
ing nutrient flow. BIODIVERSIFICATIONOFAGROECOSYSTEMS ecological services such as the activation of
From a management perspective, the soil biology, the recycling of nutrients, the
2.Securing favorable soil conditions for
agroecological objective is to provide a bal- enhancement of beneficial arthropods and
plant growth, particularly by managing
anced environment, sustained yields, bio- antagonists, and so on (Altieri and Nicholls
organic matter and enhancing soil life
logically mediated soil fertility and natural 1999). Today there is a diverse selection of
activity.
pest regulation through the design of diver- practices and technologies available, which
3.Minimizing losses due to flows of solar
sified agroecosystems and the use of low- vary in effectiveness as well as in strategic
radiation, air and water by way of micro-
input technologies (Gliessman 1998). value. Key practices are those of a preventa-
climate management, water harvesting
Agroecologists are now recognizing that tive nature and which act by reinforcing
and soil management through increased
intercropping, agroforestry, and other the “immunity” of the agroecosystem
soil cover.
diversification methods mimic natural eco- through a series of mechanisms (Table 2).
4.Species and genetic diversification of the logical processes, and that the sustainability
Various strategies to restore agricultural
agroecosystem in time and space. of complex agroecosystems lies in the eco-
diversity in time and space include crop
5.Enhance beneficial biological interac- logical models they follow. By designing
rotations, cover crops, intercropping,
tions and synergisms among agrobio- farming systems that mimic nature, opti-
crop/livestock mixtures, and so on, which
diversity components thus resulting in mal use can be made of sunlight, soil nutri-
exhibit the following ecological features:
the promotion of key ecological ents, and rainfall (Pretty 1994).
1.Crop Rotations. Temporal diversity
processes and services.
Agroecological management must lead
incorporated into cropping systems, pro-
These principles can be applied by way of management to optimal recycling of nutri- viding crop nutrients and breaking the
various techniques and strategies. Each of ents and organic matter turnover, closed life cycles of several insect pests, diseases,
these will have different effects on produc- energy flows, water and soil conservation and weed life cycles (Sumner 1982).
Table 1. Ecological processes Table 2. Mechanisms to improve
to optimize in agroecosystems agroecosystem immunity
• Strengthen the immune system (proper • Increase of plant species and genetic
functioning of natural pest control) diversity in time and space.
• Decrease toxicity through elimination of • Enhancement of functional biodiversity
agrochemicals (natural enemies, antagonists, etc.)
• Optimize metabolic function (organic • Enhancement of soil organic matter and
matter decomposition and nutrient cycling) biological activity
• Balance regulatory systems (nutrient cycles, • Increase of soil cover and crop competitive
water balance, energy flow, population ability
regulation, etc.)
• Elimination of toxic inputs and residues
• Enhance conservation and regeneration of
soil-water resources and biodiversity
• Increase and sustain long-term productivity
Fall 2002 Page 3
2.Polycultures.Complex cropping systems d.Promote pest regulation through enhanced • Diversity in the soil performs a variety
in which two or more crop species are activity of biological control agents of ecological services such as nutrient
planted within sufficient spatial proxim- achieved by introducing and/or conserv- recycling and detoxification of noxious
ity to result in competition or comple- ing natural enemies and antagonists. chemicals and regulation of plant
mentation, thus enhancing yields growth.
Research on diversified cropping systems
(Francis 1986, Vandermeer 1989). underscores the great importance of diver- • Diversity reduces risk for farmers, espe-
3.Agroforestry Systems.An agricultural sity in an agricultural setting (Francis 1986, cially in marginal areas with more unpre-
system where trees are grown together Vandermeer 1989, Altieri 1995). Diversity dictable environmental conditions. If
with annual crops and/or animals, result- is of value in agroecosystems for a variety one crop does not do well, income from
ing in enhanced complementary rela- of reasons (Altieri 1994, Gliessman 1998): others can compensate.
tions between components increasing
• As diversity increases, so do opportuni- AGROECOLOGYAND THEDESIGN
multiple use of the agroecosystem (Nair
ties for coexistence and beneficial inter- OFSUSTAINABLEAGROECOSYSTEMS
1982).
actions between species that can enhance Most people involved in the promotion
4.Cover Crops.The use of pure or mixed agroecosystem sustainability. of sustainable agriculture aim at creating
stands of legumes or other annual plant a form of agriculture that maintains pro-
• Greater diversity often allows better
species under fruit trees for the purpose ductivity in the long term by (Pretty 1994,
resource-use efficiency in an agroecosys-
of improving soil fertility, enhancing bio- Vandermeer 1995):
tem. There is better system-level adapta-
logical control of pests, and modifying
tion to habitat heterogeneity, leading to • optimizing the use of locally available
the orchard microclimate (Finch and
complementarities in crop species needs, resources by combining the different
Sharp 1976).
diversification of niches, overlap of components of the farm system, i.e.
5.Animal integrationin agroecosystems species niches, and partitioning of plants, animals, soil, water, climate and
aids in achieving high biomass output resources. people, so that they complement each
and optimal recycling (Pearson and Ison other and have the greatest possible syn-
• Ecosystems in which plant species are
1987). ergetic effects;
intermingled possess an associated resis-
All of the above diversified forms of agroe- tance to herbivores as in diverse systems • reducing the use of off-farm, external
cosystems share in common the following there is a greater abundance and diversity and non-renewable inputs with the
features (Altieri and Rosset 1995): of natural enemies of pest insects keeping greatest potential to damage the environ-
a.Maintain vegetative cover as an effective in check the populations of individual ment or harm the health of farmers and
soil and water conserving measure, met herbivore species. consumers, and a more targeted use of
the remaining inputs used with a view to
through the use of no-till practices, • A diverse crop assemblage can create a
minimizing variable costs;
mulch farming, and use of cover crops diversity of microclimates within the
and other appropriate methods. cropping system that can be occupied by • relying mainly on resources within the
b.Provide a regular supply of organic mat- a range of noncrop organisms—includ- agroecosystem by replacing external
ter through the addition of organic mat- ing beneficial predators, parasites, polli- inputs with nutrient cycling, better con-
ter (manure, compost, and promotion of nators, soil fauna and antagonists—that servation, and an expanded use of local
soil life activity). are of importance for the entire system. resources;
c.Enhance nutrient recycling mechanisms • Diversity in the agricultural landscape • improving the match between cropping
through the use of livestock systems can contribute to the conservation of patterns and the productive potential
based on legumes, etc. biodiversity in surrounding natural and environmental constraints of climate
ecosystems. and landscape to ensure long-term sus-
tainability of current production levels;
• working to value and conserve biological
HEADSTART
diversity, both in the wild and in domes-
ticated landscapes, and making optimal
use of the biological and genetic poten-
NURSERY
tial of plant and animal species; and
• taking full advantage of local knowledge
and practices, including innovative
Vegetable Transplants
approaches not yet fully understood by
scientists although widely adopted by
4869 Monterey Road, Gilroy, CA 95020 farmers.
[phone] • [phone] Fax
TheNewsletter of CCOF
Agroecology provides the knowledge and CONCLUSION
methodology necessary for developing an Agroecology provides guidelines to develop MIGUELA. ALTIERIis an associate professor
of agroecology at the Department of Envi-
agriculture that is on the one hand envi- diversified agroecosystems that take advan-
ronmental Science, Policy and Management,
ronmentally sound and on the other hand tage of the effects of the integration of plant
University of California, Berkeley.
highly productive, socially equitable and and animal biodiversity such integration
economically viable. Through the applica- enhances complex interactions and syner- He has published many papers and several
tion of agroecological principles, the basic gisms and optimizes ecosystem functions books dealing with such topics as world
challenge for sustainable agriculture to and processes, such as biotic regulation of hunger, agricultural biotechnology, pest
make better use of internal resources can harmful organisms, nutrient recycling, and management, sustainable agriculture, and
be easily met by minimizing the external biomass production and accumulation, thus chemical inputs into the agroecosystem, all
inputs used, and preferably by regenerating allowing agroecosystems to sponsor their from an agroecological point of view. Born in
internal resources more effectively through own functioning. The end result of agroeco- Santiago, Chile, he studied agronomy at the
diversification strategies that enhance syn- logical design is improved economic and University of Chile, gained a master’s degree
ergisms among key components of the ecological sustainability of the agroecosys- in poly-culture from the National University
agroecosystem. tem, with the proposed management systems of Colombia, then moved on to study
specifically in tune with the local resource entomology at the University of Florida
The ultimate goal of agroecological design
base and operational framework of existing where he earned his doctorate. In 1980 he
is to integrate components so that overall
environmental and socioeconomic condi- filled the vacated position of professor of
biological efficiency is improved, biodiver-
tions. In an agroecological strategy, manage- entomology at University of California
sity is preserved, and the agroecosystem
ment components are directed to highlight Berkeley where he has continued to research
productivity and its self-regulating capacity
the conservation and enhancement of local and support the practices of sustainable
is maintained. The goal is to design an
agricultural resources (germplasm, soil, bene- agriculture while coordinating the United
agroecosystem that mimics the structure
ficial fauna, plant biodiversity, etc.) by Nations Development Program’s Sustainable
and function of local natural ecosystems;
emphasizing a development methodology Agriculture Networking and Extension
that is, a system with high species diversity
that encourages farmer participation, use of Program (SANE). His expertise in sus-
and a biologically active soil, one that pro-
traditional knowledge, and adaptation of tainable agriculture is respected around the
motes natural pest control, nutrient recy-
farm enterprises that fit local needs and world. He has been called upon to advise
cling and high soil cover to prevent
socioeconomic and biophysical conditions. Prince Charles and the Pope.
resource losses.
Reference list for this article available at www.ccof.org/newsletter/extras/agreferences-ma.pdf
A O C
V R E
AILABLGEANICRLTIFIED
I E
N T
LATETUCE
2
0
0
2!
predicted in organic acreage and markets • Eliminate the use of non-renewable off-
(Sweezey and Broome 2000). farm human inputs that have the poten-
A
GROECOLOGY But as this transition occurs, we are tial to harm the environment or the
constantly faced with the question of how health of farmers, farm workers, or
sustainable these new agricultural systems consumers.
really are. When we examine farming sys- • When materials must be added to the
tems as ecological systems (more broadly system, use naturally-occurring materials
known as agroecosystems), and use the instead of synthetic, manufactured
M
AKING THE
science of agroecology for their design inputs.
CONVERSION TO and management, we begin to realize • Manage pests, diseases, and weeds
that farmers and researchers must work instead of “controlling” them.
S
USTAINABLE together very closely to ensure that these • Reestablish the biological relationships
A new agroecosystems are not just trading that can occur naturally on the farm
GROECOSYSTEMS
one set of problems for others. Defined as instead of reducing and simplifying them.
GETTING FROM HERE TO THERE the application of ecological concepts and • Make more appropriate matches between
WITH AGROECOLOGY principles to the design and management cropping patterns and the productive
of sustainable agroecosystems (Gliessman potential and physical limitations of the
By Stephen R. Gliessman
Alfred Heller Professor of Agroecology 1998), agroecology offers a set of guiding farm landscape.
University of California, Santa Cruz principles for making sure that sustain- • Use a strategy of adapting the biological
ability is part of our framework while we and genetic potential of agricultural
F
ARMERS HAVE ALWAYS HAD A make the conversion to organic produc- plant and animal species to the ecological
reputation for being innovators and tion. We are not satisfied with an approach conditions of the farm rather than modi-
experimenters, willingly adopting that merely substitutes conventional fying the farm to meet the needs of the
new practices when they perceive that some inputs and practices with organically crops and animals.
benefit will be gained. This has been espe- acceptable alternatives. We are not satis- • Value most highly the overall health of the
cially true in organic agriculture, where fied with an approach that is determined agroecosystem rather than the outcome of
over the past 20 years creative farmers have primarily by market demands and does a particular crop system or season.
made bold moves into a manner of farming not include the economic and social • Emphasize conservation of soil, water,
that challenges conventional wisdom on health of the agricultural communities in energy, and biological resources.
how agriculture should be done, as well as which food is produced. And we are not • Incorporate the idea of long-term sus-
what kind of agricultural products con- satisfied with an approach that does not tainability into overall agroecosystem
sumers are willing to buy. Remarkable ensure food security for all consumers in design and management.
increases in area devoted to organic agricul- all parts of the world. A much broader set
The integration of these principles creates a
ture have been observed during the past of tools must be developed to evaluate the
synergism of interactions and relationships
decade (USDA 2000). In California alone, conversion process. Agroecology provides
on the farm that eventually leads to the
growth in average annual organic sales was the ecological foundations for such an
development of the properties of sustain-
15% while acreage growth was estimated at evaluation.
able agroecosystems. Emphasis on particu-
10% per year between 1992 and 1998
PRINCIPLESGUIDING lar principles will vary, but all of them can
(Klonsky et al. 2001). Continued growth is
THECONVERSIONPROCESS contribute greatly to the conversion process.
The conversion process can be complex, For many farmers, rapid conversion to
requiring changes in field practices, day-to- organic farming is neither possible nor
day management of the farming operation, practical. Regulations require a three-year
planning, marketing, and even philosophy. transition period, but for the re-establish-
The following principles can serve as gen- ment of many ecological processes and
eral guidelines for navigating the overall relationships, this even may not be enough.
transformation (Gliessman 1998): As a result, many conversion efforts pro-
• Shift from throughflow nutrient man- ceed in slower steps toward the ultimate
agement to recycling of nutrients, with goal of sustainability, and meanwhile make
increased dependence on natural the minimal changes necessary to meet
Conversion Study. Site of a multiple-year comparison processes such as biological nitroge organic standards. Studies on the conver-
of strawberries grown conventionally and plots
fixation and mycorrhizal relationships. sion process are still very limited (for exam-
undergoing conversion to organic at Swanton Berry
• Use renewable sources of energy instead ples see Sweezey et al. 1994, 1999, Hendricks
Farms on the north coast of Santa Cruz County, CA
(see Gliessman et al. 1996). of non-renewable sources. 1995, Gliessman et al. 1996). They tell us
Page 6 TheNewsletter of CCOF
that there is a lot of research that still needs agricultural technologies and practices have reduced or minimal tillage. At this level, the
to be done to improve yields and pest man- been developed. Examples include optimal basic agroecosystem structure is not greatly
agement, as well as improve the indicators crop spacing and density, improved altered; hence many of the same problems
of sustainability. Current research efforts machinery, pest monitoring for improved that occur in conventional systems also
point out three distinct levels of conver- pesticide application, improved timing of occur in those with input substitution.
sion. These levels help us describe the steps operations, and precision farming for opti-
Level 3: Redesign the agroecosystem so that
that farmers actually take in converting mal fertilizer and water placement.
it functions on the basis of a new set of eco-
from conventional agroecosystems, and Although these kinds of efforts reduce the
logical processes.
they can serve as a map outlining a step- negative impacts of conventional agricul-
We might call this level the “sustainable
wise, evolutionary conversion process ture, they do not help break its dependence
organic.” At this level, overall system
organic systems should take in order to on external human inputs, and do not
design eliminates the root causes of many
achieve sustainability. They are also helpful qualify for organic certification.
of the problems that still exist at Levels 1
for categorizing agricultural research as it
Level 2:Substitute conventional inputs and and 2. Thus rather than finding sounder
relates to conversion.
practices with organic practices. ways of solving problems, the problems are
Level 1:Increase the efficiency of conven- We might call this approach the “com- prevented from arising in the first place.
tional practices in order to reduce the use and mercial organic.” The goal at this level of Whole-system conversion studies allow for
consumption of costly, scarce, or environmen- conversion is to replace resource-intensive an understanding of yield-limiting factors
tally damaging inputs. and environment-degrading products and in the context of agroecosystem structure
This approach is what we might call practices with those that are more environ- and function. Problems are recognized,
the “pre-organic.” Its goal is to use conven- mentally benign. Most organic farming and thereby prevented, by internal site-
tional inputs more efficiently so that fewer research has emphasized such an approach. and time-specific design and management
inputs will be needed and the negative Examples of alternative practices include approaches, instead of by the application of
impacts of their use will be reduced as the use of nitrogen-fixing cover crops and external inputs. An example is the diversifi-
well. This approach has been the primary rotations to replace synthetic nitrogen fertil- cation of farm structure and management
emphasis of much conventional agricul- izers, the use of biological control agents through the use of rotations, multiple crop-
tural research, through which numerous rather than pesticides, and the shift to ping, and agroforestry.
In terms of research, agronomists and 3.Understand the changes in energy use, keting, and even philosophy. The specific
other agricultural researchers have done a labor, and profitability that accompany needs of each agroecosystem will vary, but
good job of transitioning from Level 1 to the above changes. the principles for conversion can serve as
Level 2, but the transition to Level 3 has 4.Based on accumulated observations, general guidelines for working our way
really only just begun. Agroecology pro- identify key indicators of sustainability through the transition. It is the role of the
vides the basis for this type of research. and continue to monitor them well into agroecologist to work with the farmer to
And eventually it will help us find answers the future. measure and monitor these changes during
to larger, more abstract questions, such as 5.Identify indicators that are “farmer- the conversion period in order to guide,
what sustainability is and how we will friendly” and can be adapted to on-farm, adjust, and evaluate the conversion process.
know we have achieved it. farmer-based monitoring programs, but Such an approach provides an essential
that are linked to our understanding of framework for determining the require-
ONFARMCONVERSIONS
ecological sustainability. ments for and indicators of sustainability.
As farmers undertake to convert their farms
to organic management, it becomes impor- Each season, research results, site-specific Reference list for this article available at
tant to develop systems for evaluating and ecological factors, farmer skill and knowl- www.ccof.org/newsletter/extras/
documenting the success of these efforts edge, and new techniques and practices can agreferences-sg.pdf
and the changes they engender in the func- all be examined to determine if any modifi-
After earning
tioning of the agroecosystem. Such evalua- cations in management practices need to be
his doctorate
tion systems will help convince a larger made to overcome any identified yield-lim-
in plant ecol-
segment of the agricultural community iting factors. Ecological components of the
ogy at UC
that conversion to sustainable organic prac- sustainability of the system become identi-
Santa Bar-
tices is possible and economically feasible. fiable at this time, and eventually can be
The study of the process of conversion combined with an analysis of economic bara, STEVE
begins with identifying a study site. This and social sustainability as well. GLIESSMAN
spent nine
should be a functioning, on-farm, com-
THINKINGAHEAD years in Latin
mercial crop production unit whose owner-
Converting an agroecosystem to organic
America
operator wishes to convert to organic
management, as well as to sustainability, is where he Steve Gliessman harvesting
management and wants to participate in
a complex process. It is not just the adop- organically produced shiraz
farmed coffee
the design and management of the farm
tion of a new practice or a new technology. grapes at the family ranch in
and vegetables
system during the conversion process the Cuyama Valley of Santa
There are no silver bullets. Instead it uses
(Sweezey, et al. 1994; Gliessman, et al. in Costa Rica, Barbara County, CA. The
the agroecological approach described
ran a nursery in traditional head-pruned style
1996). Such a “farmer-first” approach is
above. The farm is perceived as part of a Guadalajara, is being combined with dry-
considered essential in the search for viable
larger system of interacting parts—an farmed techniques to produce
Mexico, and
farming practices that eventually have the a unique quality of grape.
agroecosystem. We must focus on redesign-
taught and did
best chance of being adopted by other
ing that system in order to promote the
research at a small college of tropical agricul-
farmers.
functioning of an entire range of different
ture in Tabasco, Mexico. He was founding
The amount of time needed to complete
ecological processes (Gliessman 1998,
director of the Agroecology Program and
the conversion process depends greatly on
2001). As the use of synthetic chemical
teaches in Environmental Studies at UC
the type of crop or crops being farmed, the
inputs is reduced and eliminated, and recy-
Santa Cruz. Presently he occupies the Heller
local ecological conditions where the farm
cling is reemphasized, agroecosystem struc-
Endowed Chair of Agroecology at UCSC
is located, and the prior history of manage-
ture and function change as well. A range
and has been a Kellogg Fellow. Gliessman
ment and input use. For short-term annual
of processes and relationships begin to
has published extensively on traditional agri-
crops, the time frame might be as short as
transform, beginning with aspects of basic
culture in Mexico, agroecology, and sustain-
three years, and for perennial crops and
soil structure, organic matter content, and
able agriculture. His textbook Agroecology:
animal systems, the time period is probably
diversity and activity of soil biota. Major
Ecological Processes in Sustainable
at least five years or longer.
changes begin to occur in the activity of
Agriculture, now appears in four languages.
Study of the conversion process involves
and relationships among weed, insect, and
He leads short courses and training seminars
several levels of data collection and analysis:
pathogen populations, and in the function-
in agroecology in many parts of the world.
1.Examine the changes in ecological fac-
ing of natural control mechanisms. Ulti-
He also farms organic wine grapes and olives
tors and processes over time through
mately, nutrient dynamics and cycling,
with his wife at their family ranch in Central
monitoring and sampling.
energy use efficiency, and overall agro-
California. Gliessman can be reached at
2.Observe how yields change with chang-
ecosystem productivity are affected.
[email protected] visit
ing practices, inputs, designs, and man-
Changes may be required in day-to-day
www.agroecology.org
agement.
management of the farm, planning, mar-
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