The Benefits of Eye-Closure on Eyewitness Memory - Dr. Annelies

295 Pages·2012·2.73 MB·English

The Benefits of Eye-Closure on
Eyewitness Memory

Annelies Vredeveldt

Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

University of York
Department of Psychology

September 2011
Abstract

Eyewitness memory is not perfect. However, recent research suggests that
eyewitnesses remember more about a witnessed event if they close their eyes
during the interview. The experiments reported in this thesis investigated
applied and theoretical aspects of the eye-closure effect. Experiments 1-2
examined whether the effect extended to recall of violent events. Eye-closure
was found to be as beneficial for recall of physiologically arousing violent
events as it was for non-violent events, extending the generalisibility of the
effect. Experiment 3 examined recall after a delay and repeated recall
attempts, and found no benefits of eye-closure during immediate free recall,
but substantial benefits in both free and cued recall after one week.
Experiments 4-5 examined the theoretical underpinnings of the eye-closure
effect. No evidence was found for an “ear-closure” effect on a written recall
test. Nevertheless, meaningless visual and auditory distractions during an oral
interview impaired recall performance, particularly for information presented
in the same modality as the distraction. These impairments could be
overcome by eye-closure or, to a lesser extent, by looking at a blank screen.
The data were fitted to the newly proposed Cognitive Resources framework, to
estimate the relative importance of general and modality-specific processes.
Experiment 6 enhanced the ecological validity of the research. A forensically
relevant event was staged on the street, after which witnesses were
interviewed either in a quiet interview room or on a busy street. Eye-closure
had substantial benefits in free recall and helped witnesses to provide detailed
correct answers about visual aspects of the event. It was most effective for
witnesses interviewed inside, suggesting that mental context reinstatement
might play a role in the eye-closure effect. Taken together, the findings suggest
that the eye-closure instruction could provide a simple alternative to the
Cognitive Interview, particularly when police resources are limited.

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Contents
Abstract ......................................................................................................... ii
Contents ...................................................................................................... iii
List of Figures ............................................................................................... vi
List of Tables .............................................................................................. viii
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................... ix
Financial Support ......................................................................................... x
Declaration ................................................................................................... xi
1 Overview of Thesis ........................................................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Overview of Chapters ............................................................................. 1
2 Helping Witnesses Remember ..................................................................... 3
2.1 Eyewitness Memory ............................................................................... 3
2.1.1 A Brief History of Eyewitness Research .............................................. 5
2.1.2 Memory over Time .............................................................................. 6
2.1.3 Memory under Stress ........................................................................ 12
2.1.4 Memory after Intervening Events..................................................... 19
2.1.5 Legal Consequences of the Fallibility of Memory ........................... 24
2.1.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 26
2.2 Investigative Interviewing .................................................................... 27
2.2.1 The Reid Technique .......................................................................... 27
2.2.2 Hypnosis ............................................................................................ 28
2.2.3 Context Reinstatement ..................................................................... 30
2.2.4 Cognitive Interview ........................................................................... 36
2.2.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 42
2.3 Eye-Closure ........................................................................................... 43
2.3.1 Memory Benefits ............................................................................... 43
2.3.2 Explaining the Eye-Closure Effect .................................................... 48
2.3.3 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 56
2.4 Research Aims ...................................................................................... 57
2.4.1 What We Know .................................................................................. 57
2.4.2 The Present Research ........................................................................ 57
2.4.3 Conclusion ......................................................................................... 60
2.5 Chapter Summary ................................................................................ 60
3 Memory for Violent Events ........................................................................ 61
3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................... 61
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Contents

3.2 Experiment 1: Violent Event ................................................................ 61
3.2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 61
3.2.2 Method ............................................................................................... 63
3.2.3 Results ................................................................................................ 66
3.2.4 Discussion ......................................................................................... 70
3.3 Experiment 2: Emotional Arousal ........................................................ 72
3.3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 72
3.3.2 Method ............................................................................................... 79
3.3.3 Results ................................................................................................ 84
3.3.4 Discussion ....................................................................................... 102
3.4 General Discussion ............................................................................. 109
3.4.1 Effect Size ......................................................................................... 109
3.4.2 Testimonial Accuracy ...................................................................... 110
3.4.3 Violent Event Scripts ....................................................................... 110
3.4.4 Modality and Grain Size .................................................................. 111
3.4.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................... 112
3.5 Chapter Summary .............................................................................. 113
4 Memory after a Delay ............................................................................... 114
4.1 Experiment 3: Delay ........................................................................... 114
4.1.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 114
4.1.2 Method ............................................................................................. 119
4.1.3 Results .............................................................................................. 123
4.1.4 Discussion ....................................................................................... 135
4.2 Chapter Summary .............................................................................. 141
5 Environmental Distractions .................................................................... 142
5.1 Introduction........................................................................................ 142
5.2 Experiment 4: Irrelevant Speech ....................................................... 142
5.2.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 142
5.2.2 Method ............................................................................................. 145
5.2.3 Results .............................................................................................. 146
5.2.4 Discussion ....................................................................................... 150
5.3 Experiment 5: Visual and Auditory Distractions............................... 152
5.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 152
5.3.2 Method ............................................................................................. 156
5.3.3 Results .............................................................................................. 158
5.3.4 Discussion ....................................................................................... 167
5.4 General Discussion ............................................................................. 172
5.4.1 Auditory Distractions ...................................................................... 172
5.4.2 Modality and Grain Size .................................................................. 173
5.4.3 Conclusion ....................................................................................... 174
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Contents

5.5 Chapter Summary .............................................................................. 175
6 Memory for a Live Altercation ................................................................. 176
6.1 Experiment 6: Staged Argument ........................................................ 176
6.1.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 176
6.1.2 Method ............................................................................................. 181
6.1.3 Results .............................................................................................. 186
6.1.4 Discussion ....................................................................................... 199
6.2 Chapter Summary .............................................................................. 204
7 Summary and General Discussion .......................................................... 205
7.1 Research Aims and Main Findings .................................................... 205
7.2 Recurring Themes .............................................................................. 206
7.2.1 Type of Event ................................................................................... 206
7.2.2 Recall Format and Timing .............................................................. 208
7.2.3 Testimonial Accuracy ...................................................................... 210
7.2.4 Modality, Grain Size, and Content ................................................. 212
7.2.5 General and Modality-Specific Interference ................................. 214
7.2.6 Confidence ...................................................................................... 216
7.3 Survey of Police Interviewers ............................................................. 218
7.3.1 Method ............................................................................................. 218
7.3.2 Results and Discussion ................................................................... 219
7.3.3 Conclusion ....................................................................................... 221
7.4 Limitations .......................................................................................... 221
7.4.1 Distinction between Distraction and Imagery .............................. 222
7.4.2 Filler Activities ................................................................................. 223
7.4.3 Ecological Validity ........................................................................... 224
7.5 Future Research .................................................................................. 226
7.5.1 Eyewitness Identifications .............................................................. 226
7.5.2 Misinformation ............................................................................... 227
7.5.3 Different Contexts ........................................................................... 228
7.5.4 Field Research ................................................................................. 229
7.6 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 230
Appendices ................................................................................................ 231
A. Interview Questions and Example Responses .................................. 232
B. Non-Parametric Tests ........................................................................ 241
C. Retrieval Strategies Form ................................................................... 245
D. Survey of Police Interviewers ............................................................. 246
Glossary ..................................................................................................... 249
References ................................................................................................. 250

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List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Plot structure for “Circle Island” story. ............................................ 8
Figure 2.2 Working Memory model. ................................................................ 54
Figure 2.3 Cognitive Resources framework. .................................................... 55
Figure 3.1 Experiment 1: Total number correct. ............................................. 66
Figure 3.2 Experiment 1: Fine-grain correct.................................................... 67
Figure 3.3 Experiment 1: Coarse-grain correct. .............................................. 68
Figure 3.4 Experiment 1: Proportion correct. .................................................. 69
Figure 3.5 Video editing process. ...................................................................... 79
Figure 3.6 Video counter-balancing. ................................................................ 83
Figure 3.7 Experiment 2: Skin conductance responses. .................................. 86
Figure 3.8 Experiment 2: Total number correct. ............................................. 89
Figure 3.9 Experiment 2: Fine-grain correct.................................................... 91
Figure 3.10 Experiment 2: Coarse-grain correct. ............................................ 93
Figure 3.11 Experiment 2: Proportion correct. ................................................ 95
Figure 3.12 Experiment 2: Mean confidence ratings. ..................................... 98
Figure 3.13 Experiment 2: Confidence-accuracy calibration. ...................... 100
Figure 4.1 Plot structure for “Six Feet Under” video. .................................... 121
Figure 4.2 Experiment 3: Number correct in free recall. .............................. 123
Figure 4.3 Experiment 3: Proportion correct in free recall. .......................... 127
Figure 4.4 Experiment 3: Total correct in cued recall. .................................. 128
Figure 4.5 Experiment 3: Fine-grain correct in cued recall. ......................... 129
Figure 4.6 Experiment 3: Coarse-grain correct in cued recall. ..................... 130
Figure 4.7 Experiment 3: Proportion correct in cued recall. ........................ 131
Figure 4.8 Experiment 3: Confidence-accuracy calibration. ........................ 134
Figure 5.1 Experiment 4: Total number correct. ........................................... 147
Figure 5.2 Experiment 4: Fine-grain correct.................................................. 148
Figure 5.3 Experiment 4: Coarse-grain correct. ............................................ 149
Figure 5.4 Experiment 4: Proportion correct. ................................................ 150
Figure 5.5 Experiment 5: Total number correct. ........................................... 159
Figure 5.6 Experiment 5: Fine-grain correct.................................................. 160
Figure 5.7 Experiment 5: Coarse-grain correct. ............................................ 162
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Figure 5.8 Experiment 5: Proportion correct. ................................................ 163
Figure 5.9 Experiment 5: Confidence-accuracy calibration. ........................ 166
Figure 5.10 Application of the Cognitive Resources framework. ................. 168
Figure 6.1 Experiment 6: Number correct in free recall. .............................. 187
Figure 6.2 Experiment 6: Proportion correct in free recall. .......................... 189
Figure 6.3 Experiment 6: Total correct in cued recall. .................................. 190
Figure 6.4 Experiment 6: Fine-grain correct in cued recall. ......................... 191
Figure 6.5 Experiment 6: Coarse-grain correct in cued recall. ..................... 192
Figure 6.6 Experiment 6: Proportion correct in cued recall. ........................ 193
Figure 6.7 Experiment 6: Mean confidence ratings. ..................................... 194
Figure 6.8 Experiment 6: Confidence-accuracy calibration. ........................ 196
Figure 6.9 Experiment 6: Role of witness gender in cued recall. .................. 198

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List of Tables

Table 3.1 Experiment 2: Self-reported emotional arousal. .............................. 84
Table 3.2 Experiment 2: Correlations between arousal and recall.................. 97
Table 3.3 Experiment 2: Self-reported retrieval strategies. ........................... 101
Table 4.1 Experiment 3: Number correct by centrality. ................................ 125
Table 4.2 Experiment 3: Ratings of comfort. .................................................. 135
Table 6.1 Experiment 6: Number correct by type of description. ................. 188
Table 7.1 Survey: Use of interview methods. ................................................. 220
Table 7.2 Survey: Feasibility of interview methods........................................ 220

Appendix B: Non-parametric Analyses
Table B.1 Experiment 1: Fine-grain correct.................................................273
Table B.2 Experiment 2: Total correct..........................................................274
Table B.3 Experiment 5: Total correct..........................................................274
Table B.4 Experiment 5: Fine-grain correct.................................................275
Table B.5 Experiment 5: Coarse-grain correct............................................275
Table B.6 Experiment 5: Proportion correct................................................276
Table B.7 Experiment 6: Proportion correct................................................276

Appendix D: Survey of Police Interviewers
Table D.1 Question 1: Interviewing experience...........................................280
Table D.2 Question 2: Interview location.....................................................280
Table D.4 Question 4: Helpfulness of interview methods..........................280

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Acknowledgements

First and foremost I wish to thank my wonderful supervisors, Alan Baddeley
and Graham Hitch. Each of them supported and inspired me in more ways
than I can say. Graham, thank you for your invaluable feedback and your
friendly, down-to-earth attitude that got me through the most stressful times
of the PhD. Alan, thank you for your genuine interest, your insightful
suggestions, and for always being open to new ideas. I could not have wished
for two better supervisors.

I am also grateful to Liat Levita for her help with the physiological data; to
Julian Oldmeadow for his useful comments; to Jim Sauer for his advice on the
confidence analysis; to Jodie Davies-Thompson, Yvonna Lavis, and Tom
Brackpool for double coding my data; and of course to all my participants.

Many thanks go out to Steve Penrod, who supervised my study visit at John Jay
College. I thoroughly enjoyed our discussions and it was great to see you in
action in the Bronx Court. I am also grateful to my research assistants:
HaeRim, Veronica, Alexandra, Erin, and Jacqueline, and the other people who
made my study visit absolutely unforgettable: Lindsey (you’re a star!), Maria,
Evan, Adrian, Susan, Diego, Ervin, and the awesome city of New York itself.

My greatest gratitude goes out to my family, who got me through this
challenging period in my life. Mam, thanks for always being there when I need
you, and for regularly sending a little piece of Holland my way. Pap, thanks for
the inspiring and challenging discussions about 1001 topics (and I’m sure
you’ll appreciate the alliteration in this paragraph). Michiel, thanks for being
such a great big brother.

There are many different forms of support you can get during a PhD, and one
of the most important ones is from the friends who keep you sane. Thank you
to my friends in different places: Roger, Michelle, Tum, Gaston, Jimmy,
Emma, Sam, Sayaka, Jenny, Julia, Will; even though I don’t see you every day, I
know you’ll always be there. Thanks also to my friends in York: Anastasia,
Yvonna, Jodie, Alice, Andre, Chris, Alex, Becky, Katie, Paul, Pádraig, Rachel,
Silke, Annemarieke, Chuba, Amy, Greta, Janette, Tom, Josh, Alexa, Ellie,
Zhenya, Kathi, Lily, Hess, Maria, Rebecca, and all the other lovely people I’ve
met over the years. I have been incredibly lucky to meet so many good friends.

This thesis is dedicated to the memory of Willem Albert Wagenaar, who
inspired me to go into legal psychology. Thank you for your fascinating stories

and for always believing in me. I will never forget you.
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Financial Support

This Ph.D. was generously supported by a departmental studentship from the
Department of Psychology at the University of York, and by a study-abroad
scholarship from the Verenigde Spaarbanken (VSB) Foundation in the
Netherlands. The Fulbright Center in the Netherlands provided additional
funds to undertake a three-month study visit to John Jay College of Criminal
Justice, City University of New York, where the final experiment was
conducted. The Vice-Chancellor’s Teaching Award 2009/2010 provided
further financial support for the study visit.

In addition, I am grateful to the Psychology Postgraduate Affairs Group for
providing funds which enabled me to attend the American Psychology-Law
Society conference 2010 in Vancouver and the European Association of
Psychology and Law conference 2010 in Gothenburg. I am also indebted to the
Experimental Psychology Society, who awarded a Grindley Grant for my
attendance at the 4th International Conference on Psychology and Law 2011 in
Miami. Finally, I am grateful to the European Association of Psychology and
Law for sponsoring the conference attendance of its student representatives.

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