The Behavior of Systems in the Space Environment PDF
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The Behavior of Systems in the Space Environment NATO ASI Series Advanced Science Institutes Series A Series presenting the results of activities sponsored by the NA TO Science Committee, which aims at the dissemination of advanced scientific and technological knowledge, with a view to strengthening links between scientific communities. The Series is published by an international board of publishers in conjunction with the NATO Scientific Affairs Division A Life Sciences Plenum Publishing Corporation B Physics London and New York C Mathematical Kluwer Academic Publishers and Physical Sciences Dordrecht, Boston and London D Behavioural and Social Sciences E Applied Sciences F Computer and Systems Sciences Springer-Verlag G Ecological Sciences Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, London, H Cell Biology Paris and Tokyo I Global Environmental Change NATO-PCO-DATA BASE The electronic index to the NATO ASI Series provides full bibliographical references (with keywords and/or abstracts) to more than 30000 contributions from international scientists published in all sections of the NATO ASI Series. Access to the NATO-PCO-DATA BASE is possible in two ways: - via online FILE 128 (NATO-PCO-DATA BASE) hosted by ESRIN, Via Galileo Galilei, 1-00044 Frascati, Italy. - via CD-ROM "NATO-PCO-DATA BASE" with user-friendly retrieval software in English, French and German (© WTV GmbH and DATAWARE Technologies Inc. 1989). The CD-ROM can be ordered through any member of the Board of Publishers or through NATO-PCO, Overijse, Belgium. Series E: Applied Sciences -Vol. 245 The Behavior of Systems in the Space Environment edited by Robert N. DeWitt U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Dwight Duston Strategie Defense Initiative Organization, The Pentagon, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. and Anthony K. Hyder University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, U.S.A. Springer Science+Business Media, B.v. Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute on The Behavior of Systems in the Space Environment Pitlochry, Scotland July 7-19,1991 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data NATO Advanc:ed Study InstItute on tr'e BehaVlor of Systems In the Space Envlron~ert (1991 P,tlOChry. $cotlanOl T"e benaVl0r of s)Jstems In tne 50ace envIronment edlted by Roben' rl.. )ei"'i1tt. DWlght Duston. ar'd Anthony K. hyder. p. em. -- (NATO AS~ ser\es. SerlBs E. Applled SClences . val. 245, 'Procee:1ngs of the NATO Advanced Study InstItute on The Behavlor cf Systems '''1 the Space EnvIronment. Pltlochry. Scotland. July 7-19. 1991.' 'publlsned In cooperatlon wlth NATO SClentlflC Affalrs DIVIsIon," Includes ''1dex. ISBN 978-94-010-4907-8 ISBN 978-94-011-2048-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-2048-7 Space e'lVlrOnment--Congresses. 2. Astronautlca: lnstruments- -Defects--2o'1gresses. 3. Space venlcles--Materlals--Oeterloratlon. I. DeHltt. R:Jbert N. II. DustCln, O. ... lght. III. Hyder, A. K. <Anthon\i k..) IV. North AtlantlC Treaty OrganlZatlOn. SClentlflc Afflars D:V'Slon. V. Tltie. VI. Serles NATO ASI serles. Serles E. Appllec SClences ; no. 245. TL 1489.N38 '991 620' .419--0020 93-26845 ISBN 978-94-010-4907-8 Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved © 1993 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1993 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 15t edition 1993 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo copying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. CONTENTS OVERVIEW OF THE SPACE ENVIRONMENT Near Earth Space, A Historical Perspective ....•... 1 H. Friedman Overview from a Systems Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23 C.K. Purvis Introduction to the Space Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45 R.W. Nicholls The Sun - Its Role in the Environment of the Near Earth Space . .. 67 V. Domingo The Upper Atmosphere and the Ionosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 R.W. Nicholls The Near Earth Particulat~ Enviro~ent ., . ....... 117 J.A.M. McDonnell The Magnetosphere and Its Interaction with the Solar Wind and with the Ionosphere ............... ... 147 S.W.H. Cowley Cosmic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 T. Mathews The Interplanetary Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 J . C. Mandeville ENVIRONMENTAL' 'INTERACTIONS WITH MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS Atomic Oxygen and Its Effect on Materials . . . . . . . 233 R.C. Tennyson Ultraviolet and Vacuum-Ultraviolet Radiation Effects on Spacecraft Thermal Control Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 A.E. Stiegman & R.H. Liang Contaminant-Sensitive Systems in the Solar Radiation Environment . 267 F.R. Krueger vi THE BEHAVIOR OF SYSTEMS IN THE SPACE ENVIRONMENT Hyperve10city Impact Physics - Plasma Discharge Phenomena on Solar Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... 273 F.R. Krueger Methodology for Impact Damage Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 T.J. Stevenson PrQ,tection and Shielding .... 299 J. Bourrieau Physics of Energetic Particle Interactions .... 353 C. Dyer Radiation Damage to Surface and Structure Materials . . . . . . . . 383 A. PaiUous Hazards to Electronics in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 J.H. Stephen Plasma Interactions at Low Altitudes . . . . . . . '.' . . . . . . 437 E.J. Daly & D.J. Rodgers Potential Threats to the Performance of Vacuum-Insulated High-Voltage Devices in a Space Environment . . . . . 467 R.V. Latham Surface Charging of Spacecraft in Geosynchronous Orbit . . . . . . 491 G.L. Wrenn & A.J. Sims Space Environment and EMC/ESD Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 J.P. Estienne Internal Charging and Secondary Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 M. Romero & L. Levy ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTIONS WITH SPACE SYSTEMS Tether Phenomena Observed in the Oedipus-A Experiment . . . . . . . 581 H.G. James Results of Space Experiments: CRRES ............... 605 E.G. Mullen & M.S. Gussenhoven An Overview of the Long Duration Exposure Facility: Case Studies for the Effects of the Space Environment on Spacecraft Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 D.E. Brinza Space Power Experiments Aboard Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 E.E. Kunhardt vii Current Collection by High-Voltage Spacecr~ft. . . . . . . . . . . 713 I. Katz The Human System in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 J.H. Stoklosa & K.J. Dickson The Arcing Rate for a High Voltage Solar Array: Theory and Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779 D.E. Hastings Advanced Space Photovo1taic Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795 D.J. Flood A Brief Overview of Electrodynamic Tethers .. . . . . . . . . . . 825 D.E. Hastings & R.I. Samanta Roy Beyond Mars . . . . .. 837 J.A. Angelo, Jr. APPENDICES Appendix A: Poster Papers 855 Appendix B: Organizing Committee 949 Appendix C: Lecturers 951 Appendix D: Attendees 953 Index 959 PREFACE A NATO Advanced Study Institute (ASI) on the Behavior of Systems in the Space Environment was held at the Atholl Palace Hotel, Pitlochry, Perthshire, Scotland, from July 7 through July 19, 1991. This publication is the Proceedings of the Institute. The NATO Advanced Study Institute Program of the NATO Science Committee is a unique and valuable forum, under whose auspices almost one thousand international tutorial meetings have been held since the inception of the program in 1959. The ASI is intended to be primarily a high-level teaching activity at which a carefully defined subject is presented in a systematic and coherently structured program. The subject is treated in considerable depth by lecturers eminent; in their :(ield and of international standing. The subject is presented to other scientists who either will already have specialized in the field or possess an advanced general background. The ASI is aimed at approximately the post-doctoral level. This ASI emphasized the basic physics of the space environment and the engineering aspects of the environment's interactions with spacecraft. The objective of the ASI was to bring together the latest data characterizing the space environment and the analyses of the interactions of spacecraft systems operating in that environment. The timeliness of this ASI is highlighted by the convergence of two major science and technology endeavors. The f~rst is the emerging perspective of the space environment that has resulted. fr.om the vast quantity of new data on space physics that has been obta~ned recently. These data have provided a revised understanding o.f the near-earth space environment as well as the interplanetary re~ions. The second is related to the worldwide renewal of interest in extended space operations for military, commercial, and scientific missions.> The ability of the spacecraft engineers to properly design and build spacecraft to accommodate the interactions of their systems with the space environment will pace the future uses of space. The theme of the Institute was the enhancement of scientific communication and exchange among academic, industrial, and government laboratory groups having a common interest in the behavior of systems in the environment of space. In line with the focus of the Institute, the program was org~nized into three main sessions: an introduction to and historical perspec~ive of the space environment; the physics of the interactions of materials and components with the space environment; and, lastly, the engineering of systems for operations in the environment. The first session opened with an historical overview of the exploration of the space environment. Early scientific endeavors to understand the upper atmosphere, the Earth's magnetic field, solar ix x THE BEHAVIOR OF SYSTEMS IN THE SPACE ENVIRONMENT radiation, the ionosphere, and Van Allen Belts were presented by a pioneer in the field. This was followed by an overview of the environment from a systems perspective with an emphasis on the environmental factors affecting system performance and lifetime. Individual lectures were then given to detail and update the data and understanding of the roles of the Sun, magnetosphere, upper atmosphere, ionosphere, cosmic and energetic particle radiation, and micrometeoroid and debris fluxes. The dynamics and cyclic variations of these sources and their features were discussed as well as the attempts to model them. To understand the fundamentals of the behavior of systems in the space environment, lectures were organized in the second major session on the interaction of the space environment with materials and system components. As the multi-disciplinary character of the interacting environment developed, the lectures began to focus on the total, synergistic effect of the environment on systems: the erosion of spacecraft materials by atomic oxygen, Shuttle experiments including the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) , synergistic effects due to VUV radiation and a detailed description of the local neutral spacecraft environment due to outgasing and plume impingements. Detailed modeling of particle emission by surfaces, low-density wake phenomena and anomalies due to spacecraft orientation, and radiation damage to surfaces and materials were also presented. The session concluded with lectures on particle transport simulation methods useful in the study of shielding effects, spacecraft charging from the space plasma, and several other plasma phenomena affecting spacecraft operations. The final session included lectures covering specific space systems and missions. The experimental, theoretical, and computational research efforts that comprise the SPEAR (Space Power Experiments Aboard Rockets) program were presented together with a comprehensive review of the latest results from LDEF, a detailed analysis of the Oedipus-A experiment (a rocket-launched double payload connected by an electrically conducting tether, 960 m long), and an analysis of the CRRES mission. Finally, the limitations imposed by the environment on human performance and on future commercial activity were reviewed. The initial pace of the Institute allowed ample time for informal discussion sessions to be organized and scheduled by the participants and lecturers with the encouragement and assistance of the Directors. As the Institute progressed, the interest and demand for these additional sessions grew and they consumed much of the unscheduled time. A departure from the normal format of an ASI which greatly enhanced this Institute was the opportunity for participants to contribute poster papers in two evening sessions. The posters remained in place during virtually the entire ASI and served as a catalyst for technical interaction among the participants during all of the breaks. Thirteen of these poster papers have been selected by the editors for inclusion in the proceedings and are presented in the appendix. The Institute was attended by one hundred participants and lecturers representing Canada, 'Finland, France, Germany, Greece, India, Ireland, the Netherlands, the Republic of China, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the xi United States. A distinguished faculty of lecturers was assembled and the technical program organized with the generous and very capable assistance of an Advisory Committee composed of Dr. Jean-Claude Mandeville (France), Dr. Ranty Liang (USA), Professor J. A.M. McDonnell (UK), Dr. Gordon L. Wrenn (UK), Dr. Carolyn Purvis (USA), and Professor R. C. Tennyson (Canada). The Institute was organized and directed by Dr. Robert N. DeWitt (USA), Dr. Dwight Duston (USA), and Dr. Anthony K. Hyder (U~A). The value to be gained from any ASI depends on the faculty - the lecturers who devote so much of their time and talents to make an Institute successful. As the reader of these proceedings will see, this ASI was particularly honored with an exceptional group of lecturers to whom the organizers and participants offer their deep appreciation. We are grateful also to a number of organizations for providing the financial assistance that made the Institute possible. Foremost is the NATO Scientific Affairs Division which provided not only important financial support for the Institute, but equally important organizational and moral support. In addition, the following institutions made significant contributions: Auburn University, Naval Surface Warfare Center, Strategic Defense Initiative Organization, Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Air Force Phillips Laboratory, EOARD in London, Industrial Technology Research Institute, Naval Research Laboratory, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and the NASA Centers for the Commercial Development of Space. It is a pleasure. to acknowledge the~ work of the Institute administrative and secretarial staff whose tireless efforts were critical to the success of the Institute: pon Parrotte and Jerri LaHaie of the Continuing Education Office of Aubur!l University, Alice Gehl of the Strategic Defense Initiative Organiza.tion, Maria Baxter of the Naval Surface Warfare Center, and Alison Rook of the University of Kent. We would also like to thank Dougal Spaven, the general manager of the hotel hosting the ASI; his wife, Sally, whose extensive knowledge of Scottish lore made· the excursions as informative as the Institute; and all of the staff at the Athol! Palace Hotel for a truly enjoyable and memorable two weeks in the·Scottish Highlands. Their warm friendliness made all the attendees feel most -welcomed and the superb accommodations, meals, service, and meeting facilities of the Atholl Palace made the venue ideal for an ASI. To the Tenth Duke of Atholl, our thanks for the use of Blair Castle for a magnificepc banquet and for an evening that will long remain in the memories of all who were there. A very special acknowledgment goes to Susie M. Anderson and her staff at the EG&G Washington Analytical Service Center in Dahlgren, Virginia. They undertook the very challenging task of centrally retyping the lecturers' manuscripts and of producing a camera-ready document for Kluwer Academic Publishers. Thank you all for your long hours and hard work. One of the editors (AKH) would like to acknowledge especially the Space Power Institute and Auburn University for the encouragement they have given before, during, and long after the time of the ASI. Much of the work of organizing the ASI was done while this editor was on the faculty of Auburn and the continued support of the University is greatly appreciated. To Paul Parks, Frank Rose, Ray Askew, and Cal Johnson: thank you!
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