TT BB SS RR hhee aallTTiicc eeaa eeggiioonn CCuullttuurreess,, PPoolliittiiccss,, SSoocciieettiieess EEddiittoorr WWiittoolldd MMaacciieejjeewwsskkii A Baltic University Publication T B he alTic S R ea egion C , P , ultures olitiCs s oCieties Editor Witold Maciejewski The Baltic Sea Region Cultures, PolitiCs, soCieties Editor Witold Maciejewski Dept of Scandinavian and Baltic Studies, Adam Mickiewicz University al. Niepodległości 4, 61-874 Poznań, Poland [email protected] Editorial Assistant Dominika Skrzypek Dept of Scandinavian and Baltic Studies, Adam Mickiewicz University al. Niepodległości 4, 61-874 Poznań, Poland [email protected] Project Leader Lars Rydén The Baltic University Programme, Uppsala University Box 256, SE-751 05 Uppsala, Sweden [email protected] Proof reading: Douglas Harrison, Aberfoyle, Scotland Drawings: Małgorzata Sheiki-Bińkowska or as indicated Maps: Radosław Przebitkowski or as indicated Layout and design: Ad Rem, Waldemar Pluta, Poznań Financer: The Swedish Institute, Sweden Project coordination: The Baltic University Programme, Uppsala University Production: Ad Rem, Poznań First edition: August 2002 © The Baltic University Press, Uppsala 2002 ISBN 91-973579-8-7 CONTENTS Acknowledgements 2 Abbreviations 3 Introduction – how to study a region 5 Part A: The Cultural Landscape: History, Culture and Languages 43 Section I: HISTORY 45 Section II: CULTURE 9 Section III: LANGUAGE AND MULTILINGUAL SOCIETIES 227 Part B: The Political Landscape: Democracy, Multi-ethnicity and International Relations 277 Section IV: DEMOCRACY 279 Section V: MAJORITY AND MINORITY CULTURES 37 Section VI: PEACE AND SECURITY 43 Part C: The Social Landscape: Social Conditions and Economic Development 485 Section VII: SOCIAL CONDITIONS 487 Section VIII: ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 585 The Authors 665 Index 667 The Atlas of the BSR I-VII The BalTic Sea Region Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Witold Maciejewski The Baltic Sea Region – Culture, Societies, Politics is the first textbook on a European macroregion, as seen from the perspective of humanities. The authors give a holistic, cross-disciplinary view on the countries around the Baltic, their common history, cultural and social development, politics and economy. The textbook conveys a general understanding of the societies in the region, emerging democracies, and forming new relations between new and old states. It constitutes the main reading for a university course offered by the Baltic University Programme, coordinated at Uppsala University. The point of departure for this book was the revision of the series of booklets Peoples of the Baltic pro- duced in the early 990s. However, intensive and close discussions on the changing Baltic world provoked new questions concerning the new deal in our part of Europe and resulted in the new book. Fifty-five authors, active within the BUP-network, have contributed with articles and essays on subjects considered relevant for studies on the region. The editor takes this opportunity to thank all the co-editors and authors, and especially Lars Rydén (Uppsala). His encouragement and competent suggestions have influenced both the contents and the final form of this book. The editorial work has been done at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań. The assistant editor, Dominika Skrzypek, has gone through all the texts asking questions from the point of view of a student and demanding changes in order to make the book adequate for students. Vice-rector of this university prof. Bronisław Marciniak, as well as prof. Eugeniusz Rajnik, the head of the Department of Scandinavian and Baltic Studies, have offered substantial help supporting two international conferences organized in Poznań in years 998 and 200 for BUP researchers and teachers. Douglas Harrison has proofread the manuscript with excellency not being afraid of scrutinizing some of the theses on social development. Konstantin Balandin and Galina Parfenova (both from Minsk) have contributed with relevant statistical data on education and minorities in Belarusan language. Magnus Lehman and Fredrik Degerbeck (Uppsala) have provided much technical assistance. Ms Mariola Abkowicz has rendered the manuscript in Karaim language accessible for Henryk Jankowski (see his study on page 274). On behalf of Klaus Meyer and Camilla Jensen (chapter 48) I would like to thank their colleagues at Copenhagen Business School, especially Lars Ohnemus, for helpful comments. The Spectre case has been written on the basis of a class project by cand.merc. students Anne Hjort, Anne Dorthe Beck-Nielsen, Caroline Axen, Cecilie Vinther and Vicki Rasmussen (IB 42 ‘International Business in Emerging Markets’, Copenhagen Business School, Spring 200, class teacher Klaus Meyer). CEO Evald Klausen approved the case for publication. The SCHOUW case is based on an interview with the Polish CEO Edward Zakrzewski in 997. Market Manager Henrik Jensen from SCHOUW Packing A/S approved this case for publication. I gratefully acknowledge the invaluable work, done by my colleagues at 25 Baltic universities, collectively creating the manifold panorama of the region we live in. The BalTic Sea Region 2 Acknowledgements ABBREVIATIONS ABM Anti-ballistic missile (missile defence EVS European Value Study against intercontinental ballistic missiles) FDI Foreign Direct Investment B7 Islands of the Baltic Sea GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade BaltSeaNet Baltic Sea Area Studies: Northern GDI Gender Development Index Dimension of Europe GDP Gross Domestic Product BCCA Baltic Sea Chambers of Commerce GEM Gender Empowerment Measure Association GIWA Global Initiative for Water Assessment BEEGS Baltic and East European Graduate HDI Human Development Index School HELCOM The Baltic Marine Environment BIP Baltic Investment Programme Protection Commission – the Helsinki BOD biochemical oxygen demand Commission BSBS Baltic Sea Business Summit HELCOM-PITF Project Implementation Task Force BSR Baltic Sea Region IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction BSSSC Baltic Sea States Sub-regional Council and Development BUP Baltic University Programme ICBM Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles BW Biological weapons IDA International Development Association CBM Confidence-building measures IMF The International Monetary Fund CBSS Council of the Baltic Sea States INF Intermediate range Nuclear Forces CBW Chemical and biological weapons INGOs International Non-Governmental CCB Coalition Clean Baltic Organizations CEECs Central and Eastern European countries ISPA Instrument for Structural Policies for Pre- CFE conventional armed forces in Europe Accession CFSP Common Foreign and Security Policy KOR Komitet Obrony Robotników, CIS Commonwealth of Independent States Committee for Defense of Workers CPMR Council of Peripheral Maritime Regions M(B)FR Mutual (and Balanced) Force Reductions CSBM Confidence and Security Building MAD Mutually assured destruction (deterrence Measures based capacity of each super-power to CSCE Conference on Security and Co-operation destroy the other) in Europe (Helsinki 975) MIC military-industrial complex CTB(T) Comprehensive Test Ban (Treaty); (nucle- MNE multinational enterprise ar weapons) NACC North Atlantic Co-Operation Council CW Chemical weapons NAFTA North American Free Trade Association EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization Development NDF Nordic Development Fund EC European Community NEFCO Nordic Environment Finance Corpora- EEC European Economic Community tion EFTA European Free Trade Association NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations EIB European Investment Bank NIB Nordic Investment Bank ESPAD The European School Survey Project on NKF Nordic Arts Centre, Nordisk Alcohol and Other Drugs Kunstcentrum EU European Union NOMUS Nordic Music Committee EÜE the Estonian Students Building Troops NOPEF Nordic Project Export Fund The BalTic Sea Region Abbreviations 3 NORDICOM Nordic Council for Scientific SDI Strategic Defence Initiative (‘Star Wars’ Information and Research (Nordisk programme, USA, launched 983) Dokumentationscentral for Masskommun SLBM Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile ikationsforskning) START Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (US- NORDOK Nordic Council of Scientific and USSR negotiations beginning in 982; Technical Documentation START I agreement signed 99, START NPT Non-Proliferation Treaty (nuclear weap- II between USA and Russia in 993) ons) TACIS Technical Assistance to the NWFZ Nuclear Weapons Free Zone R&D Commonwealth of Independent States Research and Development TBN Trans-Baltic Network OSCE Organisation on Security and Co-opera- UBC Union of the Baltic Cities tion in Europe UNCED United Nations’ Conference on PES Public Employment Services Environment and Development PFP Partnership for Peace UNDP United Nations Development Programme PHARE Poland and Hungary Assistance to the UNEP United Nations’ Environmental Reconstruction of the Economy Programme PPP Purchasing Power Parity VASAB Vision and Strategies Around the Baltic SALT Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (SALT I Sea 200 and II) VAT Value Added Tax SAMNAM Nordic Amateur Music Co-operation WHO World Health Organisation Council WTO World Trade Organization SAPARD Special Accession Programme for Agricul- WVS World Value Survey ture and Rural Development WW I World War I Sberbank Russia’s central bank WW II World War II SCANDOC Scandinavian Documentation Centre INTERNET LINKS Baltic University Programme. http://www.balticuniv.uadm.uu.se/ The Baltic Sea Area Studies: Northern Dimension of Europe. http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/BaltSeaNet The Baltic Sea Region Studies at University of Turku. http://www.utu.fi/hum /tdk/english/baltic/ The BalTic Sea Region 4 Abbreviations, Internet Links Introduction – how to study a region Figure 1. Photo: Katarzyna Skalska INTRODUCTION – HOW TO STUDY A REGION The Baltic Sea Region and the relevance of regional approaches Lars Rydén 7 1. How the word “region” is used 7 2. How water can define a region 9 3. The Baltic Sea region 10 4. Three ways to study a region 13 5. The origin of the Baltic Sea region – state formation and development of democracy 15 . The present political scene – co-operation increases 17 7. The Baltic Sea region as a security region 18 8. Economic regional development 20 9. Economic regions 21 10. Regional development as spatial planning and sustainability 23 11. The environment of the Baltic Sea region 25 12. Resource use 2 13. Epilogue – regionalisation as part of globalisation 27 References 29 On the emergence of the Baltic Sea region and the reading of the book Witold Maciejewski 30 1. Culture and territory or how do regions get to the world? 30 2. Defining the Baltic Sea region (the BSR) 32 3. Diversity 33 4. Rethinking the BSR in cross-disciplinary perspectives 34 5. Ground zero? 40 IntroductIon – how to study a regIon Contents The Baltic Sea Region and the relevance of regional approaches Lars Rydén The Baltic Sea Region and the relevance of regional approaches Lars Rydén 7 1. How the word “region” is used 7 2. How water can define a region 9 3. The Baltic Sea region 10 4. Three ways to study a region 13 5. The origin of the Baltic Sea region – state formation and development of democracy 15 . The present political scene – co-operation increases 17 1. How the word “region” is used 7. The Baltic Sea region as a security region 18 8. Economic regional development 20 This book is about a region, and how to study a region. A particular region, the Baltic Sea 9. Economic regions 21 10. Regional development as spatial planning and sustainability 23 region, is in focus but there is also the general issue of how to understand the development 11. The environment of the Baltic Sea region 25 in and of a region. How should such a study be done? Are there general tools for understand- 12. Resource use 2 ing regions that we want to apply? What constitutes a region, and the process of regional 13. Epilogue – regionalisation as part of globalisation 27 development? References 29 The concept of region is used mainly in two ways. Firstly a region may be a part of a state, that is a county or perhaps a province. We then refer to an area where the inhabitants com- On the emergence of the Baltic Sea region and the reading mute to work and study, and conduct more or less daily trips to buy goods or services, and of the book Witold Maciejewski 30 where there is a considerable economic interaction. The concept of regional policy mostly 1. Culture and territory or how do regions get to the world? 30 refers to this and is below state but above city or municipality level. 2. Defining the Baltic Sea region (the BSR) 32 The word region is also used to denote an area that consists of several states or parts of 3. Diversity 33 states. This concept of inter- or multinational regions is the one used below. 4. Rethinking the BSR in cross-disciplinary perspectives 34 The traditional concept of regional geography is relevant here but far from sufficient. We 5. Ground zero? 40 will need to look at regions in many ways – their landscapes and environments, their societ- ies and their histories, the people living there, the economies and so on. These pictures will together form a richer image of what a region is, why we talk about and think in terms of regions and how we prefer to constitute regions. Below, we will compare the Baltic Sea region with regions in other parts of the world, and thereby put our own region in perspective. It should be mentioned here that not everyone accepts the concept of a Baltic Sea Region. The argument seems to be that it is too diverse, has too little internal con- tacts, that communality is lacking, and that therefore there are really no reasons to call this a region. It is certainly true that the present generation inhabiting the region do not know each other well at all and thus did not realise that they belonged to a Baltic Sea region as such. I will, however, argue here that this is not in itself an absolute criterion of presence or absence of regionality, and that there are many other ways to see the relevance of regions. Instead, we may in general point to the need to give the world some structure to understand it, a structure which tells us of which parts it consists. IntroductIon – how to study a regIon The Baltic Sea Region and the relevance of regional approaches 7