Table Of Content

introduction i The Art of Symbolic Resistance ii introduction Brill’s Inner Asian Library Editors Michael R. Drompp Devin DeWeese VOLUME 30 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/bial introduction iii The Art of Symbolic Resistance Uyghur Identities and Uyghur-Han Relations in Contemporary Xinjiang By Joanne Smith Finley LEIDEN • BOSTON 2013 Coveri villustration: Lone figure on grasslanindst, rruoradl uAcqstui,o 19n96. Photo by author. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Smith Finley, Joanne. The art of symbolic resistance : Uyghur identities and Uyghur-Han relations in contemporary Xinjiang / by Joanne Smith Finley. pages cm. -- (Brill's inner Asian library, ISSN 1566-7162 ; volume 30) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-25491-6 (hardback : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-90-04-25678-1 (e-book) 1. Uighur (Turkic people)--China--Xinjiang Uygur Zizhiqu--Ethnic identity. 2. Uighur (Turkic people)-- China--Xinjiang Uygur Zizhiqu--Government relations. 3. Government, Resistance to--China-- Xinjiang Uygur Zizhiqu. 4. Xinjiang Uygur Zizhiqu (China)--Ethnic relations. I. Title. DS731.U4S65 2013 305.894'323--dc23 2013023185 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.com/brill-typeface. ISSN 1566-7162 ISBN 978-90-04-25491-6 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-25678-1 (e-book) Copyright 2013 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers and Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper. contents v For my mum and dad, who encourage me in all that I do vi contents contents vii CONTENTS List of Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  xi Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  xv PART ONE THE ART OF SYMBOLIC RESISTANCE Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   1 1 Inequalities: The Socio-Economic Backdrop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23 1.1 Han In-migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23 1.2 Language Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  29 1.3 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  36 1.4 Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  44 1.5 Wealth Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  55 1.6 Resource Exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  60 1.7 Political Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  70 Conclusion: Development – Equality = Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  74 PART TWO SOUNDS OF DISCONTENT 2 Stereotypes: Talk Breeds Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  81 2.1 Social Stereotypes: Theoretical Frame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  82 2.2 Theorising Han Chauvinism: The ‘Civilising Project’ . . . . . . . .  84 2.3 Different Ways of Seeing: Counter-stereotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . .  90 2.4 Common Heritage: Foundations of Counter-stereotypes . . . .  92 2.5 Stereotypes relating to Uyghur Cultural Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . .  93 2.6 Stereotypes relating to Islamic Social Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 2.7 Stereotypes relating to Colonisation and Exploitation. . . . . . . 118 Conclusion: Talk Breeds Conflict (or the Power of Oral Complaint) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 3 Making Culture Matter: Symbolic, Spatial, and Social Boundaries  130 3.1 Barthian Theory: Ethnic Boundaries as Resistance . . . . . . . . . . 131 viii contents 3.2 Symbolic Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 3.3 Spatial Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 3.4 Social Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 3.5 The Consequences of Boundary-crossing: Bus Stories and Street Fights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 3.6 Managed Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Conclusion: The Roots of Constructed Segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 4 Illuminists: Popular Song and the Waking of the Uyghur Nation 173 4.1 The Musician-comprador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 4.2 Popular Singers as Illuminists: The Advent of ‘New Folk’ . . . . 184 4.3 Cassette Culture and Mass Mediation of Political Messages 189 4.4 Ömärjan Alim: The People’s Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 4.5 Abdurehim Heyit: The Intellectuals’ Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 4.6 Religious and Class Cleavages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Conclusion: New Folk as a Locus of Solidarity and Disunity . . . . . 229 PART THREE ‘SILENCE’: AFTER THE 1997 GHULJA DISTURBANCES 5 Reverts: Sources and Dynamics of Islamic Renewal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 5.1 Islamic Renewal in Ürümchi since the Late 1990s . . . . . . . . . . 236 5.2 Globalising Forces: Border Trade, Pilgrimage, Study Abroad and News Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 5.3 Islam as Symbolic Resistance against Perceived Muslim Oppression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 5.4 Islam as a Response to Failed Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 5.5 Islam as an Egalitarian Ethos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 5.6 Islam as a Response to Frustrated Ethno-political Aspirations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 5.7 Modernity and the Return to Cultural ‘Purity’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 5.8 Islam as a Vehicle for Personal and National Reform . . . . . . . . 281 5.9 Internal Divisions within the Uyghur Muslim Population . . . 284 Conclusion: ‘All Five Digits on one Hand are not Alike’ . . . . . . . . . . 287 6 Endogamists: Gender, Nation and a Selective Taboo . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 6.1 The Statistics on Intermarriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 6.2 Parental Prohibition and Excommunication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 6.3 Community Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 contents ix 6.4 Perceived Barriers: Racial, Cultural, Religious, Historical, Political . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 6.5 Managing Intermarriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 6.6 Hierarchy of Intermarriage Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 6.7 Women as ‘Culture Bearers’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 6.7 Endogamy as Cultural Survival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Conclusion: Honour and Shame in a Context of National Impotence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 7 Hybrids: Identity Negotiations among the Urban Youth . . . . . . . . . 349 7.1 The First-generation Minkaohan: ‘Internalised Oppression’ 350 7.2 The Second-generation Minkaohan: Product of Urban Instrumentalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 7.3 Minkaohan Self-identity in Contemporary Xinjiang: ‘Ethnic Anomalies’?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 7.4 The Minkaohan-minkaomin Divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 7.5 The Han Wannabe: Prototype for the Third-generation Minkaohan? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 7.6 Cosmopolitan Multilingualism: Uyghur Youth as ‘World Citizens’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 7.7 The Beginnings of Rapprochement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Conclusion: From ‘Ethnic Anomaly’ to Subaltern Cosmopolitan 402 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 x contents CL7APSPTISC573ACI111CH1111C33446M7CM44456666C777CC22CP‘57E333CI5566CR5CEF2USISTPSCS2222CI4C561FPBI55SnnndlNAAAtccaOtaroi................................................9..rcnHhieloohhohooooohhhhoc 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The Art of Symbolic Resistance: Uyghur Identities and Uyghur-Han Relations in Contemporary Xinjiang PDF

484 Pages·2013·3.377 MB·English
by  Joanne Smith Finley
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introduction i The Art of Symbolic Resistance ii introduction Brill’s Inner Asian Library Editors Michael R. Drompp Devin DeWeese VOLUME 30 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/bial introduction iii The Art of Symbolic Resistance Uyghur Identities and Uyghur-Han Relations in Contemporary Xinjiang By Joanne Smith Finley LEIDEN • BOSTON 2013 Coveri villustration: Lone figure on grasslanindst, rruoradl uAcqstui,o 19n96. Photo by author. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Smith Finley, Joanne. The art of symbolic resistance : Uyghur identities and Uyghur-Han relations in contemporary Xinjiang / by Joanne Smith Finley. pages cm. -- (Brill's inner Asian library, ISSN 1566-7162 ; volume 30) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-25491-6 (hardback : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-90-04-25678-1 (e-book) 1. Uighur (Turkic people)--China--Xinjiang Uygur Zizhiqu--Ethnic identity. 2. Uighur (Turkic people)-- China--Xinjiang Uygur Zizhiqu--Government relations. 3. Government, Resistance to--China-- Xinjiang Uygur Zizhiqu. 4. Xinjiang Uygur Zizhiqu (China)--Ethnic relations. I. Title. DS731.U4S65 2013 305.894'323--dc23 2013023185 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.com/brill-typeface. ISSN 1566-7162 ISBN 978-90-04-25491-6 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-25678-1 (e-book) Copyright 2013 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers and Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper. contents v For my mum and dad, who encourage me in all that I do vi contents contents vii CONTENTS List of Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  xi Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  xv PART ONE THE ART OF SYMBOLIC RESISTANCE Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   1 1 Inequalities: The Socio-Economic Backdrop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23 1.1 Han In-migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23 1.2 Language Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  29 1.3 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  36 1.4 Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  44 1.5 Wealth Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  55 1.6 Resource Exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  60 1.7 Political Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  70 Conclusion: Development – Equality = Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  74 PART TWO SOUNDS OF DISCONTENT 2 Stereotypes: Talk Breeds Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  81 2.1 Social Stereotypes: Theoretical Frame. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  82 2.2 Theorising Han Chauvinism: The ‘Civilising Project’ . . . . . . . .  84 2.3 Different Ways of Seeing: Counter-stereotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . .  90 2.4 Common Heritage: Foundations of Counter-stereotypes . . . .  92 2.5 Stereotypes relating to Uyghur Cultural Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . .  93 2.6 Stereotypes relating to Islamic Social Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 2.7 Stereotypes relating to Colonisation and Exploitation. . . . . . . 118 Conclusion: Talk Breeds Conflict (or the Power of Oral Complaint) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 3 Making Culture Matter: Symbolic, Spatial, and Social Boundaries  130 3.1 Barthian Theory: Ethnic Boundaries as Resistance . . . . . . . . . . 131 viii contents 3.2 Symbolic Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 3.3 Spatial Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 3.4 Social Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 3.5 The Consequences of Boundary-crossing: Bus Stories and Street Fights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 3.6 Managed Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Conclusion: The Roots of Constructed Segregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 4 Illuminists: Popular Song and the Waking of the Uyghur Nation 173 4.1 The Musician-comprador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 4.2 Popular Singers as Illuminists: The Advent of ‘New Folk’ . . . . 184 4.3 Cassette Culture and Mass Mediation of Political Messages 189 4.4 Ömärjan Alim: The People’s Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 4.5 Abdurehim Heyit: The Intellectuals’ Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 4.6 Religious and Class Cleavages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Conclusion: New Folk as a Locus of Solidarity and Disunity . . . . . 229 PART THREE ‘SILENCE’: AFTER THE 1997 GHULJA DISTURBANCES 5 Reverts: Sources and Dynamics of Islamic Renewal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 5.1 Islamic Renewal in Ürümchi since the Late 1990s . . . . . . . . . . 236 5.2 Globalising Forces: Border Trade, Pilgrimage, Study Abroad and News Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 5.3 Islam as Symbolic Resistance against Perceived Muslim Oppression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 5.4 Islam as a Response to Failed Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 5.5 Islam as an Egalitarian Ethos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 5.6 Islam as a Response to Frustrated Ethno-political Aspirations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 5.7 Modernity and the Return to Cultural ‘Purity’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 5.8 Islam as a Vehicle for Personal and National Reform . . . . . . . . 281 5.9 Internal Divisions within the Uyghur Muslim Population . . . 284 Conclusion: ‘All Five Digits on one Hand are not Alike’ . . . . . . . . . . 287 6 Endogamists: Gender, Nation and a Selective Taboo . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 6.1 The Statistics on Intermarriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 6.2 Parental Prohibition and Excommunication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 6.3 Community Supervision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 contents ix 6.4 Perceived Barriers: Racial, Cultural, Religious, Historical, Political . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 6.5 Managing Intermarriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 6.6 Hierarchy of Intermarriage Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 6.7 Women as ‘Culture Bearers’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 6.7 Endogamy as Cultural Survival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Conclusion: Honour and Shame in a Context of National Impotence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 7 Hybrids: Identity Negotiations among the Urban Youth . . . . . . . . . 349 7.1 The First-generation Minkaohan: ‘Internalised Oppression’ 350 7.2 The Second-generation Minkaohan: Product of Urban Instrumentalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 7.3 Minkaohan Self-identity in Contemporary Xinjiang: ‘Ethnic Anomalies’?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 7.4 The Minkaohan-minkaomin Divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 7.5 The Han Wannabe: Prototype for the Third-generation Minkaohan? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 7.6 Cosmopolitan Multilingualism: Uyghur Youth as ‘World Citizens’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 7.7 The Beginnings of Rapprochement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Conclusion: From ‘Ethnic Anomaly’ to Subaltern Cosmopolitan 402 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 x contents CL7APSPTISC573ACI111CH1111C33446M7CM44456666C777CC22CP‘57E333CI5566CR5CEF2USISTPSCS2222CI4C561FPBI55SnnndlNAAAtccaOtaroi................................................9..rcnHhieloohhohooooohhhhoc 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