Natural Science in Archaeology Series editors: B. Herrmann, G.A. Wagner Andreas Hauptmann The Archaeometallurgy of Copper Evidence from Faynan, Jordan With 170 Figures and 40 Tables Volume editor Prof. Dr. Andreas Hauptmann Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum Forschungsstelle für Archäologie und Materialwissenschaften Hernerstraße 45, 44787 Bochum, Germany E-mail: [email protected] Series editors Prof. Dr. Bernd Herrmann Prof. Dr. Günther A. Wagner Universität Göttingen Max-Planck-Institut für Kernphysik Institut für Anthropologie Forschungsstelle Archäometrie Bürgerstraße 40 Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften 37073 Göttingen, Germany Saupfercheckweg 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Inner frontispiece Satellite view (Ikonos satellite data) of the ancient mining district of Faynan, Jordan, and its surroundings. Red dots in the image show mining and smelting sites. These are located mainly in the area of Wadi Jariye in the north, at Khirbet en-Nahas, at and near the Byzantine ruins of Faynan and at Umm el-Amad in the south. Clearly visible are the “Roman-Byzantine” terraces which might have been constructed as early as in the 4thmillennium BCE. All satellite images are shown in this volume by courtesy of European Space Imaging / © European Space Imaging GmbH. Library of Congress Control Number: 2007925905 ISSN 1613-9712 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York ISBN 978-3-540-72237-3 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitations, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplica- tion of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copy- right Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be ob- tained from Springer. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media springer.com German edition © Andreas Hauptmann Bochum 2000 Publication of the Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum no. 155 English edition © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2007 All rights reserved The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the rel- evant protective lawsand regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: deblik, Berlin Typesetting: Stasch · Bayreuth ([email protected]) Production: Christine Adolph Printing: Krips bv, Meppel Binding: Stürtz AG, Würzburg Printed on acid-free paper 32/2132/CA – 5 4 3 2 1 0 Preface The results presented in this book originate from field research carried out by the Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum (hereafter called DBM) on the remains of early copper metallurgy in the area of Faynan, southern Jordan, between 1983 and 1993. It also contains results of later laboratory studies and fieldwork. This volume is a revised version of the German volume “Zur frühen Metallurgie des Kupfers in Faynan, Jordanien,” which appeared in 2000 as supplement 11 of the journal “Der Anschnitt.” The translation into English honors the wishes of many colleagues from the Near East and from English-speaking countries who have expressed the desire that a larger audi- ence should have access to the research carried out on the ancient mining district and mining techniques. The translation was made possible by a generous grant from the foundation of the “Institute for Aegean Prehistory” (Philadelphia, USA). Prof. Dr. Susanne Kerner, Mr. Hughe Barnes, and, in parts, Dr. Hans-Dieter Kind translated the book into the English version. Much of the editorial work was done by MA Kerstin Batzel and Mr. Guillaume Ewandé. The original research in the Faynan area was initiated within the framework of a larger project “Research into the archaeometallurgy and archaeology of mining in Faynan and the southern Arabah-valley, Jordan” funded by the VolkswagenStiftung (Hanover, Germany). The original planning and groundbreaking work was carried out by the author. Since 1997, research was continued by and in close cooperation with Prof. Dr. Thomas Levy, University of California, San Diego (USA). Research into early metal extraction covers a number of different problems, requir- ing a broad, interdisciplinary approach and calling for the cooperation of various dis- ciplines. Metal extraction from mining of the ore deposits to the metal’s production, using differing smelting techniques, required craft specialization throughout the differ- ently organized social structures of different periods of time, while the distribution of metal objects via trade was dependent on the social, cultural and political frameworks of the time. Close cooperation with archaeologists, mainly mining archaeologists, is the indis- pensable precondition for the understanding of material evidence. Archaeometallurgy uses field methods (e.g., geology of ore deposits), various physical dating methods, as well as procedures for mineralogical, chemical and isotopic analyses to process a broad variety of finds. These methods and the connected problems are discussed in the first part of this volume, before the results of our own research are presented. The initial idea for the study of early copper mining in the mining region of Faynan came from Prof. Dr. Hans-Gert Bachmann. He had worked intensively on the archaeo- VI Preface metallurgical remains in Timna (Israel) and Sinai (Egypt), at a time when the political conditions made it impossible to investigate Timna and Faynan together. Bachmann recognized that a cultural and social interpretation of the early copper production in the Southern Levant would have been incomplete without the knowledge of the processes of metal production in Faynan (Bachmann and Hauptmann 1984). Bachmann visited Faynan for the first time in 1982, and his impression of the dimensions of the smelting activities there resulted in a declaration by Rothenberg with the significant title “Ancient Jordan City May Rival Timna’s Place in Copper History” (Rothenberg 1983). It was the activities of Bachmann that led to this research project, and he continued his interest in it as far as his workload allowed him. The first brief survey in preparation for the fieldwork was conducted in September of 1983. The first larger field season was carried out during the autumn of 1984. The next campaign took place in the spring of 1986, making it possible for Prof. Dr. Wolf- gang Frey and his team (Institute for Systematic Biology and Geobotany of the Free University of Berlin) to participate. They pursued in a parallel research project, also funded by the VolkswagenStiftung, the important question of how sufficient firing material for the smelting of such huge quantities of slag had been obtained. Faynan, on the eastern side of Wadi Arabah, lies in a semi-arid region. This question became even more pressing when even the initial fieldwork showed 150000 to 200000 t of slag in the area of Faynan. The third campaign was conducted in the spring of 1988, together with three Jorda- nian colleagues from the Department of Antiquities of Jordan, after the signing of an official cooperation agreement. Dr. Mohammed Najjar, Emsaytif Suleiman and Abd es-Samir started with excavations at an Early Bronze Age smelting site as well as the Late Neolithic settlement mound (Tell Wadi Faynan). Dr. Mohammed Najjar has been the co-director of the project since the beginning of the official cooperation agreement. The fourth field season took place in the spring of 1990, again with the Jordanian colleagues and the botanists from Berlin. In addition, a group of archaeologists under Prof. Dr. Volkmar Fritz (then from the University of Mainz) participated. They carried out excavations in the Early Bronze Age settlement area of Barqa el-Hetiye and in Khirbet en-Nahas. A group of archaeologists from the University of Sheffield under Dr. Russell Adams started at the same time, then still independent of the Faynan-project, excavations on some Neolithic and Early Bronze Age settlements. The fifth and last field season in the framework of this project had been planned for the spring of 1991, but had to be postponed due to the Gulf War that had started in January of that year, and finally took place in the spring of 1993. The aim of this last campaign had been to finish various field projects. That was possible for purely archaeo- metallurgical research, where analysis in the laboratory was the main bulk of the work. The mining archaeology project as well as the excavation of two pre-pottery settle- ments (Wadi Ghwair 1 and Wadi Fidan A) and the Late Chalcolithic-Early Bronze Age settlement (Wadi Fidan 4) had to be suspended. Due to the complexity of the research design, many different scientists have been involved in this project. Firstly, my colleague Prof. Dr. Gerd Weisgerber of the DBM was the scientist who worked on the mining archaeology and with whom I carried out the entire fieldwork. Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Frey, Dr. Uli Baierle, Dr. Thomas Engel, Dr. Harald Kürschner and Christian Jagiella of the Freie Universität Berlin dealt with Preface VII the botanical questions concerning the problem of early firing materials. Prof. Dr. Volkmar Fritz, Mainz, together with his team carried out the archaeological research concerning the Early Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement activities; the work was later partly continued by Matthias Flender, Tübingen/Düsseldorf. The Early Bronze Age settle- ment of Wadi Fidan 4 was excavated by Dr. Russell Adams, now at Ithaca College, Ithaca (New York) and Dr. Hermann Genz, now at the American University of Beirut. In the ensuing years a number of provenance studies of several metal objects from around the Levant have been carried out. These analyses continue, and one aim is to prove whether the materials used in these objects originated from Faynan and clarify the role of this mining region in the Southern Levant and Egypt. The incor- poration of objects from Israel was most commendably made possible by Dr. Miriam Tadmor, then of the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. The isotope analysis was carried out by Prof. Dr. Friedrich Begemann and Dr. Sigrid Schmitt-Strecker of the Max-Planck-Institut für Chemie, Mainz; the neutron-activa- tion-analysis by Prof. Dr. Ernst Pernicka, now with the University of Tübingen/ Reiss- Engelhorn-Museum in Mannheim; the thermoluminescence-dating by Dr. Irmtrud and Prof. Dr. Günther Wagner, then with the Heidelberger Academy of Science at the Max- Planck-Institut für Kernphysik. They, as well as Dr. Zofia Stos and Prof. Dr. Noel Gale, then at the Isotrace Laboratory, University of Oxford, Dr. Alberto Palmieri, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Rome, Prof. Dr. Thomas Levy, University of San Diego, California and Dr. Russell Adams supplied a good amount of unpublished data at my disposal for this volume. For this, heartfelt thanks are expressed here. Of all the mentioned studies, mainly those dealing directly with the ancient metal- lurgy have made it into this volume. Our work has been accompanied and supported by a number of Jordanian and German individuals and institutions, to whom it is a great pleasure to give thanks. I want to mention firstly and particularly the former ambassador of Germany, the late Dr. Herwig Bartels, whose untiring interest will be always remembered. He died August 2, 2003 before this volume was finished and will be remembered by all of us. Four consecutive directors of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan have supported our research with great goodwill and often helped with unofficial dealings: Dr. Adnan Hadidi, Dr. Ghazi Bisheh, Prof. Dr. Safwan Tell, and Dr. Fawwas Al-Khreyshah. Working in the remote and then militarily controlled area of Faynan was made possible through the assistance of the Natural Resources Authority, Amman, which at the time was represented by the acting director Mohammed Abu Ajamieh. He contributed to the logistics necessary to provide housing in the geologists’ camp in Wadi Dana and sup- plied essential support for the research into the metal deposits. Technical help and housing was also provided by Sharif Hussein Bin Nasr, Wadi Arabah Cooperative, and his employees, who repaired the roads and tracks destroyed by floodwater at the beginning of each season and thus created the conditions that made fieldwork possible. Contact and home in Amman was the German Protestant Institute for the Archae- ology of the Holy Land. It was above all Dr. Susanne Kerner, who, if the situation required it, speedily and if necessary unconventionally assisted took care of the various members of the different campaigns. I am most grateful to a number of team members for their work in the field, which due to the remote situation of the area was often organizationally rather difficult. VIII Preface The engagement of the following people furthered the study of the archaeometal- lurgy of Faynan: Siegfried Averbek, Dr. Andrea Büsing-Kolbe, Dr. Andreas Brunn, Dr. Jan Cierny, Omar Daghestani, Markus Eichholz, Dr. Andreas Haasis-Berner, Jürgen Heckes, Thomas Henning, Anke Joisten-Pruschke, Werner Lieder, Christoph Roden, Dirk Rostoff, Hans Schwarz, and Angelika Weisgerber. Special thanks for many things are due to Hans-Joachim Kunkel. Emile Masadeh, who was not only the inspector of the Department of Antiqui- ties for our project for many years but also our friend, remains unforgotten. He died April 9, 1993. The research project was mainly funded by the VolkswagenStiftung, Hanover. The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) supported several trips necessary to sample metal objects for provenance studies. The Vereinigung der Freunde von Kunst und Kultur im Bergbau (VFKK), Bochum, helped to balance financial deficits cre- ated through unexpected developments during the field-work. One aim of our research into the early mining and smelting in Faynan was to pinpoint the cultural as well as economic significance of this region. For a long time archaeology neglected investigations into (pre)-historic technologies to obtain raw materials, particularly metal, most probably because of the difficulties in organizing the necessary interdisciplinary approach. It is therefore to our delight that Faynan has become the focal point of several archaeological projects since 1994 and that a number of international institutions from the United Kingdom and the United States of America have started excava- tions with the aim of finding more information about the cultural and socio-political history of the area, which is today a nature reserve. It is also noticeable that the early metallurgy of the Southern Levant has been the topic of numerous studies and Ph.D. theses, which have dealt not only with the technological aspects of archaeometal- lurgy, but also highlighted the social and cultural repercussions. Since 1997, extensive surveys and excavations have been conducted by Prof. Dr. Thomas Levy and his team in the greater Faynan region. The aim was at first to document alll settlement structures in the model area of Wadi Fidan, the “gateway to the north,” in order to investigate the role of early copper production particularly in the Early Bronze Age. This led to to the sensational unearthing of the copper working settlements of Khirbet Hamra Ifdan in the years 1999 and 2000 (see there), where the largest metal workshop of the Near East was discovered (Levy et al. 2002). The excavation of Khirbet en-Nahas started in 2002, shedding new light on the development of the Edomite state. And in 2003 a number of salvage excavations in Wadi Fidan were carried out in response to plans to build a dam and therefore were partly financed by the Jordan Valley Water Authority. The revised version of the Faynan-book very much profited from new satellite images which were donated by Dr. Hans-Dieter Kind. Mrs. Anette Hornschuch (DBM, Department of Information Systems) and Mike Oversberg kindly performed digital image processing and added a set of (three-dimensional) photographs of the Faynan area. The geographical terms used in the following text are simplified transcriptions from Arabic without any diacritical signs. Andreas Hauptmann, Bochum, May 2007 Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 2 Problems and Methods of Archaeometallurgyy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 2.1 Fieldwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 – The Investigation of ‘Ancient’ Ore Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 – The Documentation of Ancient Smelting Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.2 Analytical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 – Physical Dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 16 – The Investigation of Ancient Slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 – Chemical Analysis of Ores and Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 – Lead Isotope Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3 Nature and Geology in Faynan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 – Toponymy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 – Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 – Topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 – Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 – Water, Irrigation Systems and Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 – Wind Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 49 – Vegetation and Fuel Supply for the Ancient Copper Smelters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 4 The Raw Material Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4.1 Geological Overview of the Near Eastt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4.2 Ancient Ore Deposits in the Near Eastt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 4.3 The Copper Deposit of Faynan and its Relation to Timna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 – Geological Framework and Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 – The Ores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 – Geochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 73 – Lead Isotope Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 5 Field Evidence and Dating of Early Mining and Smelting in the Faynan District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 85 5.1 Landscape and Dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 5.2 Site Catalogue and Archaeometallurgical Finds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 I. Khirbet Faynan and Vicinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 II. Find Spots in Wadi Ghwairr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111 X Contents III. The Mining District of Qalb Ratiye (JD-25, JD-GR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112 IV. The Mining District in Wadi Abiad (JD-26, JD-WA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115 V. The Mining District of Wadi Khalid (JD-3, JD-II) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 VI. Sites in the Lower Wadi Dana (JD-13, JD-III) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122 VII. Ras en-Naqab (JD-5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123 VIII.El-Furn (Ngeib Asiemer, JD-6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126 IX. Khirbet en-Nahas (JD-2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127 X. The mining district of Umm ez-Zuhur and Madsus (JD-41) . . . . . . . . . .130 XI. Khirbet el-Jariye (JD-11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131 XII. WWWadi el-Ghuwebe (JD-27) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132 XIII.Sites in Wadi Fidan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133 XIV.Barqa el-Hetiye (JD-31) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141 XV. The Mining District of Umm el-Amad (JD-10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144 5.3 The Development of the Mining District of Faynan: Field Evidence . . . . . .145 6 Study of Archaeometallurgical Slag and Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157 6.1 Slags of the 4th Millennium BCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157 – The ‘Most Ancient’ Slags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157 – The Material from the Faynan Districtt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158 – Chemistry and Melting Behaviorr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159 – The Petrography of the Slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164 – ‘Free Silica Slags’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167 – The Development of Mineralogical Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169 – Sulphide Inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178 6.2 Manganese-Rich Silicate Slag from the Early Bronze Age to the Mameluk Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 – Manganese-Rich Slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 – The Material from the Faynan Districtt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 – Chemistry and Melting Behaviorr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182 – The Petrography of the Slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186 – The Development of Mineralogical Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 6.3 The Composition of Copperr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199 – Trace Element Contentt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199 – The Material from the Faynan Districtt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200 – Chemical Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200 – The Homogeneity of Copperr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202 – Partitioning of Trace Elements between Metal and Slag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204 – Iron in Copperr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .207 – Lead Istotopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .211 7 Copper Smelting Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217 7.1 The Earliest Stage: Crucible Smelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217 – The Archaeological Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217 – Previous Experimental Studies and Thermodynamics of Crucible Smelting 219 – Reconstruction of Crucible Smelting Based on Archaeological Finds . .223 – Modeling Other Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227