The archaeology of Islam

143 Pages·1999·14.087 MB·English

by  Timothy Insoll

4
Copyright © Timothy Insoll 1999 This book is dedicated to Rachel
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British Library Cataloguingin Publication Data
A CIP catalogue recordfor this book is availablefrom the British Library.
Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-PublicationData
Insoll, Timothy.
The archaeology of IslamJTimothy Insoll.
p. cm. (Social archaeology)
—
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 0—631—20114—9 (he.). ISBN 0—631—20115—7(pbk.)
—
1. Civilization, Islamic. 2. Social archaeology—Islamic
countries. 3. Material culture—Islamic countries. 4. Muslims—
Social life and customs. I. Title. II. Series.
DS36.855.147 1999
909’.097671—dc2l 98—26727
CIP
Typeset in Stemple Garamond on 10.5/12 Pt
by PureTech India Ltd, Pondicherry, http://www.puretech.com
PrintedandboundinGreatBritainbyMarstonBookServicesLimited, Oxford
This book is printed on acid-free paper
Contents
List of Figures ix
List of Plates xi
Acknowledgements xiii
1 Introduction 1
Aims and Objectives 1
Islamic Archaeology: a Brief Critique 3
The Role of the Scholar: Archaeology and Religion 7
Islam and Islams 9
Annales Theory and Archaeological Practicalities 12
Geographical, Temporal and Material Ranges 13
Islam: Origins, Requirements and Components 17
Muslim Diversity: Mystics, Wahhabiyyah and Taliban 21
The Individual and the ‘Islamic Way of Life’ 24
2 The Mosque 26
p Scales of Analysis: Structuring Principles and Cultural
Diversity 27
Structuring Principles: the Mosque 28
Cultural Diversity: Regional Traditions 33
The Archaeological Study of the Mosque 33
Places of Prayer and Muslim Religious Identity 49
Summary and Conclusions 58
3 The Domestic Environment 60
An Ideal Islamic Domestic Environment 62
Archaeological Recognition 66
viii
CONTENTS
Archaeology, Domestic Space and Social Use 77
Summary and Conclusions
90
4 Muslim Life
93
Food and Drink
94 Figures
Education and Health
108
Pilgrimage and Travel
109
Personal Possessions and Dress 116
Magic and Talismanic Protection
124
War
128
Summary and Conclusions
131
5 Art, Trade and Ideas
133
Islamic Art or Art of Muslims: Background and
Components
134
Visual Imagery 1.1 Map of approximate extent of former or currently
144
The Transmission of Muslim Iconography and Other Ideas 148 Muslim-dominated areas in Europe 14
Coinage 1.2 The Islamic world AD 600—1924: a simplified chronology
149
Trade Routes and Trade Goods showing the major dynasties 16
151
The Transmission of Islamic ‘Civilization’ 2.1 Stylized plan of mosque components in an ‘ideal’ mosque 30
162
Summary and Conclusions 2.2 Simplified plan of types of mosque. 34
165
2.3 The position of the mosque in relation to the palace,
6 Death and Burial Madinat al-Zahra, Spain 35
166
2.4 Simple dry-stone mosque, Hoggar, central Sahara 48
Muslim Burial: Ideals and Origins
167 2.5 Minaret built in pagoda style, Niu Jie mosque, Beijing,
The Place of the Dead
169 China 52
Tombs for the Living and the Dead
176 2.6 Plan of the interior of the Mawson Road mosque,
Funerary Epigraphy: the Language of Death 187 Cambridge 57
The Apple and the Olive
195 3.1 Stereotypical layout of an idealized Muslim courtyard
The Archaeology of Paradise
197 house 63
Summary and Conclusions
199 3.2 Spatial domains in Isfahan 66
7 The Community Environment 201 3.3 Vertical utilization of space in a San’a tower house 70
3.4 Evolutionary sequence from pup tent to mud-hut
Muslim Cities and Settlements 202 compound in Afghanistan 75
Social Dimension of the Muslim Settlement 207 3.5 Interior of a Berber house, Algeria 86
A Total Approach: the Landscape 218 4.1 Pilgrimage routes in Arabia 112
The Contemporary and Future Situation 224 4.2 Plan of Aidhab, Sudan 113
Summary and Conclusions 225 5.1 Forms of basmala in kufic script 140
5.2 Three types of figural representation achieved through
8 An Archaeology of Islam?
227 calligraphy 141
5.3 Al-Buraq image 145
References
233
5.4 Simplified map of trade routes 154
Index
262
5.5 Cemeteries in the Niger bend region, Mali 161
X FIGURES
6.1 Grave clothes formerly used in Palestine 171
6.2 Alignment of Muslim burial section in comparison to the
predominantly Christian burials in the Newmarket Road
Cemetery, Cambridge 174
6.3 Bilingual tombstone in Chinese and Arabic from -niiates
Quanzhou, China 191 1
7.1 Stereotypical city layout based on Tunis 203
7.2 Reconstruction of the round city, Baghdad 209
7.3 The Octagon of Husn al-Qadisiyya 210
7.4 Plan of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 214
2.1 Former mosque, now Church of St John, Almeria, Spain 37
2.2 Decorated columns from a Hindu building re-used in the
Quwwut ul-Islam mosque, Delhi 39
2.3 Ostrich eggshell displayed on the Sidi Yahya mosque,
Timbuktu, Mali 43
2.4 Sacrifice remains in a mihrab, Green Island, Massawa,
Eritrea 44
2.5 The Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem 50
2.6 Former mosque, Chesterton Road, Cambridge 56
3.1 Mashrabiyya, Massawa, Eritrea 65
3.2 Kazakh family in front of tent, early twentieth century 72
4.1 Halal butchers, Kom Ombo, Egypt 98
4.2 Songhai women cooking in Gao, Mali 105
4.3 Qur’an school, Rakai District, Uganda 108
4.4 Various personal items from Ottoman period levels
at Qasr Ibrim, Egypt 119
4.5 Higab (amulet) contents from Qasr Ibrim, Egypt 126
4.6 War scene from The Khamsa ofNizami 129
5.1 Tombstone, Dahlak Kebir, Eritrea 139
5.2 Salt caravan, Gao, Mali 160
6.1 The Taj Mahal, Agra 179
6.2 Qubbas from the air, Old Dongola, Sudan 185
6.3 Ottoman tombstones, Hadarpasha cemetery, Istanbul 193
6.4 Muslim cemetery, Borneo 194
7.1 The citadel and later town, Daulatabad, India 221
7.2 Bathing scene from The Khamsa ofNizami 223
Acknowledgements
Various people have helped directly or indirectly in many ways to
bring this volume to fruition, and I would like to take this opportun
ity to thank them. Particular thanks are due to Henri Medard for
providing such a convivial environment for the initial idea to take
shape in his flat in Paris; to the series editor, Ian Hodder, for his
encouragement and faith in the project; to the six original anonymous
reviewers for making this volume more cohesive; and to Rachel
Maclean, Faraj el-Rashedy, David Edwards, John Alexander, Jo
Bruck, Ian Hodder, Helen Watson, and Andrew Petersen for reading
and commenting on all or parts of the text. Louise Martin and Kevin
Rielly provided much valuable information on faunal analysis; Ven
etia Porter (Department of Oriental Antiquities, British Museum)
provided references on seals; and Talib Ali, then a student at StJohn’s
College, very kindly made possible my visits to the Cambridge
mosque and introduced me to members of the Muslim community
there, while the Manager of Cambridge Crematorium and Cemeteries
kindly allowed me to see the plan of Newmarket Road Cemetery. Dr
Abdullah al-Sharekh and the Reverend Steven Shakespear discussed
various issues with me in the early stages of my research.
I have also benefited from discussions with Harry Norris, Paulo
Farias, Robin Coningham and Jo Bruck. For hospitality and assist
ance during various visits made while undertaking this research, I
would like to thank: in Gibraltar and Spain, Clive and Geraldine
Finlayson; in India, Vicky Singh; in Eritrea, Yassin Adem, Drs
Yoseph Libsekal, Chris Hillman and Charles Spence; in Turkey,’Dr
Rachel Maclean; in Mali, Nafogo Coulibaly, Dr Téréba Togola, Massa
Diarra, Jo Lee, Elmoctar Toure, Dr Klena Sanogo and Dr Mamadi
Dembele. If I have neglected anyone who has helped, I apologize.
X1V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am also grateful to St John’s College, Cambridge, for funding
various research visits, and to Nick Hollaway, and Abigail and
1
Pamela Insoll for preparing the illustrations.
Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders. The author Introduction
and publisher would like to apologize in advance for any inadvertent
use of copyright material, and thank the following individuals and
organizations who have kindly given their permission to reproduce
copyright material.
Forfigures: 1.2 (Simplified chronology), courtesy ofthe Trustees of
the British Museum. 2.2 (Types of mosque), courtesy of Martin
Frishman and Thames and Hudson. 3.3 (San’a tower house), courtesy
of the Centre of Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge.
3.4 (Afghan structural evolution), courtesy of Garland Publishing,
New York. 3.5 (Berber house), courtesy ofProfessor Pierre Bourdieu.
5.1 (forms of Basmala), courtesy of Professor Annemarie Schimmel Have theynotheard the histories ofthosewho have gone beforethem?
and E. J. Brill Publishers, Leiden. 6.2 (Cambridge cemetery), courtesy The fate of Noah’s people and of Thamud and Ad; of Abraham’s
of the cemeteries manager, Cambridge City Council. 7.2 (Round people and the people of Midian and the Ruined Cities.
City), courtesy of Wayne State University Press, Detroit. Qur’an. Repentance 9: 70
For plates: 2.1 (Almeria mosque), courtesy of Dr Peter Mitchell,
Pitt-Rivers Museum, Oxford. 3.2 (Kazakh family) and 6.4 (Borneo
cemetery), courtesy of the Cambridge University Museum of Aims and Objectives
Archaeology and Anthropology. 4.2 (women cooking), courtesy of
Dr Rachel Maclean. 4.4 and 4.5 (Qasr Ibrim objects), courtesy of the This volume takes as its startingpremiss that the study ofthe material
Egypt Exploration Society. 4.6 (war scene) and 7.2 (bathing scene) by remains left by adherents of the Islamic faith across many regions of
permission of the Master and Fellows of St John’s College, Cam the world deserves to be better known by all those interested in the
bridge. 5.1 (tombstone, Eritrea), courtesy of Dr Charles Spence. 5.2 past. It also accepts that Islam, the religion, exists as a definable,
(salt caravan), courtesy of Mrs Anna Bennett. 6.2 (qubbas), courtesy cross-culturally applicable entity: a set of religious beliefs which
ofthe Library, Institute ofArchaeology, University College, London. have been adapted and interpreted across the world depending on
cultural context. In other words, we can see Islam as a uniform
Note on sources, orthography, pronunciation and dating It superstructure composed of the fundamentals of belief, with a diverse
should be noted that the translation of the Qur’an used throughout substructure of practices, cultures and their material manifestations
this volume is that by Dawood (1993), while the spelling of Arabic below. Thus, the presence of a Muslim community should be recog
words in English, italicization and capitalization largely follow nizable in the archaeological record, for being a Muslim should gen
Waines (1995). Likewise, for simplicity’s sake, and following Lind erate certain types of material culture, specific to the faith, and
holm (1996), no attempt has been made to include diacritical marks reflecting its doctrines and its requirements of the believer. This, in
which would give the proper pronunciation of the Arabic words, turn, means that categories of archaeological evidence can exist, from
except in a few instances. Readers are referred to Arabic—English the Atlantic to Central Asia, which could indicate the presence of a
dictionaries for correct orthography. The CE (Common Era), BCE Muslim community. Yet how these categories are manifest will be
(Before Common Era) dating system has been adopted, and all dates extremely diverse. This notion will be explored with reference to
are CE unless otherwise specified. how Muslim life is structured by the Qur’an (to Muslims, the Word
of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the Angel
Gabriel), hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad as
2
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 3
remembered and recorded by his companions) and shari’ah (Islamic excuse the stating of facts that are basic to the discussion. In many
law): namely, is the ideal reflected in practical reality? ways this volume has to assume a variety of identities: part textbook,
The oft-quoted maxim, usually from a secular Western viewpoint, part review and part theoretical study. It is also necessary to consider
that, ‘Islam is more than just a religion but a way of life’ has funda the present state of our knowledge, and the perspectives that I bring
mental implications for archaeology, implying religious influence to the study.
beyond the frequently considered domains of places of worship and
treatment of the dead. This notion will be considered with specific
reference to a wide range of material (much of which is frequently Islamic Archaeology: a Brief Critique
ignored). This includes the religious environment (the mosque); the
physical environment (cities and othersettlement types); the domestic Various criticisms can be made of Islamic archaeology as it presently
environment (in all its many forms); death and burial; art, design, exists, which impinge upon its position as an essential component of
manufacturing and trade; and other aspects of Muslim life which are the discipline of archaeology. First, there has been an element of
often neglected, including diet, pilgrimage, warfare and magic. As separation between the study of Islamic archaeology and other areas
well as examining the issue of whether Islam can be seen to exert an of archaeology through the simple fact that Islamic archaeologists
influence on all areas of life as represented by material culture, atten have tended, perhaps not surprisingly, to be based within specialist
tion will be paid to evaluating the evidence and its archaeological departments, something which has both advantages and disadvan
recognition from a practical perspective, thus demonstrating that tages. Scholars well versed in Arabic and other relevant languages
Muslim communities are recognizable archaeologically. Yet it is not are grouped together, and much admirable and often very specialized
the objective ofthis volume to generate anessentialistimage of Islam, research is produced, but such departments can be seen as rather
Muslims and their material culture. Broad categories are considered, limited and there is an element of academic pigeonholing, with ‘Isla
numerous exceptions exist and have existed, the pre-Islamic heritage mic’ and other ‘exotic’ archaeological studies placed away from the
is often considerable and great diversity is manifest. received mainstream and thus made to appear remote, inaccessible
The second aim of this study is to illustrate the richness and and different.
diversity of Islamic material culture through a series of case studies, This separation of Islamic and other branches of archaeology is
but without recourse to providing typologies of monument forms, unfortunate as a closer working relationship would benefit all in a
pottery types and so on, topics which have often been approached variety of ways:
elsewhere. Our concern will be to place Islamic material culture
within its social context, and the emphasiswill be upon interpretation • by reaching a larger community than those who consciously
and the importance of studies of material culture as a way of further choose to study what is often perceived as the ‘exotic’;
ing ourunderstanding ofMuslim societies in the past. To achieve this, • by realizing that the archaeology of such an influential religion is
we need to be selective and adopt a multi-disciplinary approach. In of great import and significance;
this respect, Islamic archaeologists are in a privileged position: a • by creating in European and American contexts an atmosphere of
wealth of anthropological, historical and sociological evidence is mutual understanding thrQugh learning from each other and
available in addition to the archaeology; all can help in developing drawing upon each other’s experiences.
hypotheses and aiding interpretations. A further, and fundamental,
advantage enjoyed by the archaeologist of Islam is the fact that Islam Thus improved methodologies could be developed forthe study ofall
is a living religion and, although great changes are affecting contem religions and for archaeology in general. Furthermore, it would help
porary Muslim material culture, the core doctrines have altered little in appreciating that much of the past has been shared, rather than
since the first century of Islam, facilitating our understanding of the divided up into polarized insular, continental or regional blocks. Such
tenets of the religion. All this can help us to breathe life into the closer working relationships might also assist in reducing criticism
subject.
that a tradition of occidental scholarship within the ‘orientalist’ vein
Finally, while many readers will know something of Islam, I hope continues (Said 1978): a well-documented creation of Western his
that thosewith a greater knowledge ofthe religion and its history will toriography, evoking stereotypical images of Islam, for example in
4
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 5
stressing decadence, luxury, the harem and bizarre sexual practices, accepted, new ways of examining and describing Islamic societies are
and creating an exotic ‘other’ set in opposition to a superior Western proposed. Indeed, within this vein of self-examination by related
world. Similarly, an isolated scholarly tradition does little to refute fields of Islamic studies, a recent paper looking into the use of
an alternative and increasingly common Western view of Islam, material culture studies from a historian’s perspective (Keddie 1992)
assisted by the media, as a religion of intolerance, restriction, radical has isolated the frequent absence of a multi- or inter-disciplinary
ism and, stereotypically, associated with terrorism and Kalashnikov approach. Archaeologists often ignore other available sources of evi
rifles.
dence, and in a similarway the historian ignores material culture.
Criticism can also be levelled at the way in which Islamic archae Further problems can be isolated. Whereas European medieval
ology has developed. First, many studies have been inclined to con archaeology has been shown to be subservient to history, primarily
centrate upon one aspect of material culture (architecture, art and so textual, Islamic archaeology could in many cases be said to be sub
on) or to be very site or regionally specific, without considering the servient to art history. This pointwas indeed raised by Grabar (1971)
wider context, even though the necessary data might be available for over twenty-five years ago in one of the few evaluations of Islamic
such a study to proceed. Where larger studies have been undertaken, archaeology as a discipline that have been undertaken. But, unfortu
frequently no attempt is made to integrate other forms of evidence, nately, this admirable sentiment was undermined by his statement
anthropological, historical or sociological. A multi-disciplinary that Islamic archaeology should have as its objectives: providing the
approach is largely lacking, leading to a one-dimensional emphasis exact features of standing monuments and the chronological and
in research. Much new information about Islamic societies can be spatial setting of objects, with archaeology as ‘an indispensable tool
gained through the study of the archaeological record, but, unfortu for the authentication, the dating, the localisation and explanation of
nately, excavation reports, the bedrock of research, often lack inter works of art’ (1971: 198). To be fair, this statement was somewhat
pretation, their appeal is limited and hence are little used by the tempered in a later, more substantial, review of both Islamic art and
non-archaeologist. This further impedes the development of an archaeology (Grabar 1976), but the emphasis on Islamic archaeology
Islamic archaeology which is multi-disciplinary in outlook, by as involving cataloguing, classifying, collecting and recording, at the
restricting theoretical debate, a required starting-point. Secondly, expense of interpretation and theory-building, still persists in this
the process of self-examination which has been undertaken in other later paper and is accounted for by the fact that, among other reasons,
fields of archaeology has largely passed Islamic archaeology by. Isla ‘the humanist fears committing himself intellectually until he is sure
mic archaeologyhas tended to fall behind those fields of archaeology of himself, he fears hypotheses, mental gambles, and discussions’
where advances have been made in theoretical studies and in what is (1976: 260). This position is not adopted here where hypotheses
best termed ‘social archaeology’. —
will be advanced and various ‘mental gambles’ taken in the following
However, these are not problems unique to Islamic archaeology. pages and is, indeed, at odds with the examples of Grabar’s elegant
Medieval European archaeology, chosen as it is broadly comparable and ‘so—cially aware’ work which will be drawn upon in the following
chronologically, has suffered, or in certain cases continues to suffer, chapters.
from similarproblems of theoretical and practical isolation, as well as Whole categories of archaeological evidence have been neglected
a perceived inferiority of archaeological evidence to the written word owing to dated research designs and methods tied to the dictates of
m(Cehdaiemvpalioanrc1h9a9e0o)l.oTgyhehamsaicnardriieffderoeuntc,e,ovheorwtehveerp,alsitestwinenthtye fyaecatrsthoart uarntdherissttoarnyd.inFgorofexthaempfoler,meaxticoanvaatendd mdeavteerlioaplmheanstcoofnItrsilbamutiecdatrot, obuurt
so, a profitable process of self-examination (Hinton 1983; Austin and we know very little about what was eaten in the Islamic world. The
Alcock 1990; Austin and Thomas 1990). Methodologically sound, and analysis of botanical remains and faunal assemblages from Islamic
interesting, archaeological research is now being conducted. sites is under-developed, compared to the study of high-quality pot
Otherkinds ofIslamic studies have gone through the process ofre tery, whereas the cruder everyday pottery is similarly neglected.
examination and have progressed in theoretical leaps and bounds; for Economic, demographic, landscape and environmental archaeology
example, Islamic anthropology (see the classic studies of Geertz 1968; are all under-developed or under-utilized in Islamic archaeology.
Gellner 1981; Gilsenan 1982) and socio-historical studies (Eickelman Neglecting such evidence inevitably limits our understanding of Isla
and Piscatori 1990). Although not everything put forward might be mic civilizations by reducing the possibilities of interpretation and
6
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 7
biasing the picture we present. Unfortunately, much Islamic archae possibilities for research are offered into the material culture remains
ology is still not being done to accepted modern standards. left behind by a major, living, world religion, whose material culture,
Emphasis within Islamic archaeology is still upon major monu past and present, covers much of the globe.
ments — the great mosques, palaces and so on and the upper
echelons of society to the detriment of research int—o the bulk of the
population, the sedentary agriculturalist, the nomad and the lower The Role of the Scholar: Archaeology and Religion
classes of city-dwellers. What is best termed a ‘top-heavy’ Islamic
archaeology has largely been the result, whereby our picture is Undertaking such a study also raises the issue of the qualifications of
skewed in favour of palace-dwellers and consumers of prestige the researcher in observing and writing about Islam. The issues
items such as lustre pottery, rock crystal and ivory; whole strata of surrounding Western viewpoints and scholarship on Islam have
society are absent or rarely represented. It is what Austin terms, in been much analysed and debated (Said 1978; 1-lourani 1991). In
the context of European medieval archaeology, the history of ‘great essence, does one need to be a Muslim to study Islamic archaeology?
events’ and ‘great men’ (1990; 10), and this is a great shame because, It will be argued here that this is not the case (interestingly, support
as Keddie (1992: 34) notes, material culture is ideally suited to ‘mak for this was offered by all my Muslim colleagues and friends who
ing the silent masses speak’. This preoccupation with courtly and were consulted on the issue). Similarly, one need not be a Jew to
prestige production is further emphasized in the Islamic galleries of study Jewish archaeology or a Christian to study Christian archae
most major museums where the exhibits, a fair proportion of them ology, though some would insist on just such a prerequisite. A more
provided by archaeology, rarely represent the everyday life and death equitable perspective, as was proposed earlier, is that we should
of most people. It is not true to say that this emphasis on the grander envisage thepast as something common to us all, ratherthan attempt
objects draws the crowds and thus creates interest in the Islamic past ing to appropriate great spatial, cultural or chronological blocks as
forin many cases it is the material culture residue ofthe ordinary and somehow belonging to this or that group, with only members or
the everyday with which people most identify. This aspect of the adherents of the group being able to study it.
recent Islamic past is sometimes found in the ethnography galleries, However, the charge can be levelled that something may be lost in
even if obviously archaeological in origin. interpretation through not being an adherent of the faith or belief
The relative youth of Islamic archaeology is no excuse for the system studied; one cannot see the complete whole through being
existence of theoretically and methodologically old-fashioned techni detached from it. Conversely, something could also be lost by being
ques for, as already noted, comparable fields of archaeology have re an adherent of the faith or belief system under study, by making it
evaluated themselves quite successfully. For Islamic archaeology to more difficult to question established doctrines; in this way, the
avoid being marginalized and neglected it needs to adopt a higher question of faith enters the equation. Essentially, there is no simple
profile. The superposition of Islamic archaeological deposits with answer to this charge, and the issues of scientific rationality as
other more ‘fashionable’ earlier ones is a case in point: archaeologists opposed to belief are discussed in greater detail below. But it is
frequently either wholly neglect or half-heartedly record Islamic certainly wise to proceed with sensitivity when dealing with extant
levels, in a rush to get at those beneath, the true aim of their inves beliefs, and to acknowledge that one is after all only an observer,
tigations. Examining the theoretical and practical role of Islamic albeit in a privileged position observing a living religion and ongoing
archaeology is a necessary step in developing a more modern processes.
approach to the archaeology of Islam, one concerned with all aspects The second major factor affecting the role of the scholar is how
of the Muslim world and society. deeply he or she should be immersed in the area of archaeology
But why is this of importance? To end this section on a positive which he or she is studying? Here, I should confess that I am not
note, a modern approach is indeed being achieved by some Islamic from an orientalist background, but from a general archaeological
archaeologists, and there is absolutely no reason why Islamic one. However, 1 envisaged that the present study would emphasize
archaeology cannot make a contribution to, or fully enter, the main the advantages offered by exploiting archaeological evidence and be a
stream of archaeological theory and practice. It is not through neces contribution to the growing interest in the general archaeology of
sity a specialist backwater, but an area of study where exciting religion. In this context, I should admit that there are scholars who
8
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION 9
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too often appeared to forget this, and while perhaps acknowledging world religion such as Islam, all aspects of life can be structured by
that the individuals who made up the past communities under study religion and can be approached and reconstructed by the archaeol
were religious represented, say, by a mosque, synagogue or church ogist. That society and religion are inextricably linked, and that reli
see the other —spheres of people’s lives as segregated out, and con— gion can serve as a means of perpetuating the structure of society, its
trolled by otherpreoccupations, and accordingly study these as some norms and requirements, has long been recognized by anthropologists
thing separate. (see, for example, Geertz 1966). Within sections of the secular society
But it is also correct to say that the archaeological study of religion which exists in contemporary Western Europe and North America
in general is a complex affair, and for this reason is often avoided as a this point could easily be forgotten: religion frequently holds little or
taboo subject, or hidden under the all-encompassing and difficult-to- no sway overmany. Where itdoes exist, and thispointwill be referred
define term ‘ritual’ (Renfrew 1994). It has been acknowledged that to again later, it is often compartmentalized (Hubert 1994: 12), either
the archaeological study of religion lags behind other specialized physically or conceptually, as something placed within an allotted
fields, both theoretically and practically (Garwood et al. 1991: v). timespan, an hour in church on a Sunday, or the synagogue on a
Elements of religion, sacred structures or burials are examined, but Friday perhaps. Religion as a guiding force in all aspects of life has
the bigger picture is often avoided, other than providing a historical been forgotten, and subsequently Western archaeologists, influenced
overview (an interesting exception within the context of Islam is bythe prevailing social climate no matter how much they like to think
provided by Alexander’s 1979 comparative study, and in general ofthemselves as neutral observers, have likewise reflected this absence
terms by Carmichael et al’s. 1994 volume). This reticence is more of an overall spiritual structure within their interpretations.
understandable when it comes to considering the study of prehistoric
religions (a notable exception is provided by theJournalofPrehistoric
Religion), restricted as prehistorians are by the nature of their evi Islam and Islams
dence, but it is less easy to understand when world religions or
historically documented cult or ritual practices are under considera While acknowledging the overall existence of Islam as a structuring
tion archaeologically. Here the impact of religion upon all aspects of code to material culture, one stumbling block which has been
the archaeological record could be investigated in the pursuit of a encountered needs to be explained. This is the very existence of the
more complete understanding of the role and impact of religion in notion of ‘Islam’ as compared to ‘Islams’; in other words, the degree
different contexts. to which regional traditions, schools, sects and different nationalities
within Islam and the Muslim world destroy, or at least encroach