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The anti-usury arguments of the Church Fathers of the East in their historical context and the accommodation of the Church to the prevailing “credit economy” in late antiquity PDF

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JournalofAncientHistory2017;5(1):134–178 AntigoneSamellas* The anti-usury arguments of the Church Fathers of the East in their historical context and the accommodation of the Church to the “ ” prevailing credit economy in late antiquity DOI10.1515/jah-2016-0017 Abstract:TheevidencetheChurchFathersofferabouttheeconomicpracticesof lateantiquityareoftendismissedasemptyrhetoric.Theaimofthisarticleisfirst, to examine the historical value of their arguments against usury in the light of papyrological and hagiographic sources as well as οf archaeological findings; secondly,toassesstheextenttowhichthechurchesandmonasteriesinSyriaand Egyptaccommodatedthemselvestothe“crediteconomy”oflateantiquity;and, thirdly,toevaluatethereasonsforthechurch’scompromisewiththeestablished creditpracticesanditsimpactontheimplementationoftheChristianredistribu- tiveideals. Keywords:ancientdebt,ancientconspicuousconsumption,ancientexploitation, ancientcorruption,ancientcharity Christianitychallengedtheclassicalnotionofjustice,whichrestedontheidealof ameritocraticelitistreciprocity,toheraldaredistributivejusticethatwouldtake intoaccounttheneedsofthepoor.1HenceGodcancelsthedebtsofhisservants, Christransomswithhisbloodhumankindfromdebtbondage,takentoimplyits servitude to sin, and, overturning the established relation between lender and borrower,inauguratesanewkindofcontractwhichequatedcharitytothepoor with lending to the Lord. Furthermore, ample rewards were reserved for the magnanimous lender, but only in the afterlife.2 Μetaphor did not negate but 1 TheargumentisspelledoutinSamellas(2010),225–249. 2 Matt18:23–35;Luke6:34–35;“IfyougivetothepooryoulendtotheLord”:Prov19:17;forthe concretewaysthatsinanddebtareimplicatedintheGospels,seeEubank(2013),48–49,54–55, 60–61,155.δὸςκαὶἐγὼἀποδώσω,...ἐνχειρογράφῳδημοσίῳτῆςοἰκουμένης(GregoryofNyssa, *Correspondingauthor:AntigoneSamellas,Pontou3,14671AthensGreece, E-Mail:[email protected] Brought to you by | Australian Catholic University Authenticated Download Date | 6/19/17 4:03 PM TheAnti-UsuryArgumentsoftheChurchFathers 135 rather enhanced the resonance of the primary, literal, material sense which formeditskernel.Forgivenessofsinswaspremisedontheabsolutionofdebts.3 The Lord’s Prayer echoed the language of the decrees of the Ptolemies who not only remitted debts but proclaimed an amnesty “for all the subjects to their basileiaforerrors,crimes,accusations,condemnations,andchargesofallkinds ...”4Infact,inthemostsubversiverenderingoftheLord’sPrayer,intheversion ofQtext,thecancellationofdebtsbythelendersoftheearthlyrealmwasseenas priortodivineforgiveness.5 In the period under study the Church Fathers recommended the tearing asunderofthelegalagreementssignedbythecreditorandtheborrowerirrespec- tiveofwhetherthesewereperceivedasfairorunjust.6Chrysostominterpretedthe parableofthedishoneststewardinLuke16:1–13,which,accordingtoonerecent plausible interpretation,7 refers to the voluntary remission of the debts of the tenants, practiced by the landlords in the hope that in the future the insolvent debtors might be able to pay at least a part of the amount owed to them8, as meaningatotalandunqualifiedforgivenessofdebts.9GregoryofNyssademysti- fied the benefactor’s ideology, which saw the usurious contracts as being con- ContraUsurarios198,21–23);cf.Chrysostom,Hom.Rom.VII,7–8(PG60:451–453);butGodalso appearedasatrustworthybankerwhoremuneratedthosewhogaveawaytheirmoneyfortheir philanthropy:μὴκαθυβρίσῃςτὸνθεὸνμηδὲἡγήσῃτῶντραπεζιτῶνἀτιμότερονοἷςἀναμφιβόλως πιστεύεις....δὸςἀκαπήλευτοντὴνεὐεργεσίαν,καὶὄψεισοιτὸνθεὸνμετὰπροσθήκηςἀποδιδόντα τὴνχάριν(GregoryofNyssa,ContraUsur.,199,6–7,10–11). 3 “InAramaicthesamewordmeanssinordebt(hôbâ)”:Oakman(2014),75. 4 C. Ord.Ptol.53andSB8.9899citedandtranslatedbyBazzana(2011),517.Itisimportanttonote that“theglobalcancellationwasextendedtowhateachsubjectinthekingdomowedtoanother:” Bazzana,ibid.Indugentiadebitorum,concerningtaxarrearsowedtothestatealsopracticedinthe lateRomanEmpire:CT5.11.11(A.D.386);11.28.1(A.D.363);11.28.9(A.D.414). 5 Q11:2b-4:“Father—mayyournamebekeptholy!—letyourreigncome:ourday’sbreadgiveus today;andcancelourdebtsforus,aswetoohavecancelledforthoseindebttous;anddonotput us to the test!” Bazzana (2011), 512. Q 11:2b-4 as a concrete response to the rising peasant indebtednessinruralPalestineinthetimeofJesusinOakman(2014),71–77,23–38.Itisalso interesting to note that “few Christians today recognize that when they pronounce the word ‘Hallelujah’theyarerepeatingtheritualtermaluluchantedtosignifythefreeingofBabylonian debtslaves.”Dandamaev(1984)citedinHudson(1993),27. 6 Ἐὰνχρεωφειλέτηνλάβῃςπροσπίπτοντα,πᾶσανσυγγραφὴνἄδικονἢκαὶδικαίανδιάσπασον (GregoryofNazianzus,Or.40.31,textfromMoreschini2012,958);cf.Chrysostom,Hom.Rom. XVIII,6(PG60:581);Hom.Matt.LVI,5(PG58:555). 7 Goodrich(2012),563–565. 8 EvidencefromRomanEgyptinGoodrich(2012),559–562;fortheWestseeBrown(2012),60. 9 ΔιάτοιτοῦτοκαὶἐκεῖνοντὸνοἰκονόμονὁΧριστόςἐπήνεσετὸνἠνίκαἔμελλεκινδυνεύειντὰ γραμματεῖαδιαλύσαντακαὶχρεωκοπίανἐργασάμενον(Chrysostom,Exp.Ps.CXI,4,PG55:295). Brought to you by | Australian Catholic University Authenticated Download Date | 6/19/17 4:03 PM 136 AntigoneSamellas sensuallegaldeedsofmutualbenefittobothparties,10bydescribingtheagree- mentsignedbythecreditorandtheborrowerasanactoffraudthatreducedthe debtortotheutmostdestitution: “Ifsomeonetakessomeoneelse’smoneybyforce...heiscalledaviolentcriminal,butthe onewhoadvertises hisfelonyin financial agreements ...andwhoenforceshiscrimeby contractsiscalledabenefactor...andtheprofitfromthievingiscalledloot,buttheperson whostripshisdebtornakedbythiskindofcompulsiongiveshisharshnesstheeuphemism ‘philanthropy’.”11 In the ideal world of the Apophtegmata Patrum interest free loans were given whichwererepaidmiraculously.AnincidentthattookplaceinArabiainEgyptis instructiveinthatregard:JohnthePersianborrowedagoldencoinfromafellow monk in order to buy the linen necessary for his work. In spite of this, when a fellowmonkapproachedhimandaskedhimtolethimusesomeofhislinento makealebiton,presumablyforhimself,andthenanotherbrothermadeasimilar requestforthepurposeofweavingasmallpieceofcloth,heeagerlylentthelinen tothetwomonks.Thelenderofthegoldencoinhoweverwantedhismoneyback, soJohnwenttotheoikonomosofthemonasteryandaskedforacoin.Thesteward waspreparedoutofphilanthropytocoverthedebtofhisbrother.Yet,intheend, John found by chance a golden coin on the ground and handed it over to the oikonomostellinghimtopaybacktheloantothemonkwhohadhelpedhimbuy thelinenonhisbehalf.Subsequently,wheneverabrotheraskedhimtouseone of his belongings, he let him take it and never made a claim on the object lent whenitwasnotreturnedtohim.12 Monksmayhaveboughtrawmaterialsinthemarket,buttheassumptionwas thattheywouldneverusethemforcommercialpurposesbuttosatisfytheirown needs.13Secondly,theyshouldnotconsiderlendingaprofit-seekingactivitybuta philanthropicgesturethatputtheirpersonalbelongingstocommonuse.Indica- tiveoftheiranxiety-riddenattitudetowardsthemarketisthefollowingepisode:a brother confessed to his superior that he felt troubled whenever he went to the 10 Benefactor’sideologyattestedbyabankerinaninscriptionfromCirtainAfrica:omnibus communisergo:cuinonmisertus?,citedinVeyne(2000),1189.Forthewaythelenderputonthe appearance of friendliness to entice the borrower to accept his onerous terms, see Basil of Caesarea,Hom.Ps.XIV,1(PG29:265). 11 GregoryofNyssa,Eccl.345,16–346,5;trans.HallandMoriarty(1993),80. 12 AP6.8,textfromGuy(1993),318–322.Onthemiraculouseconomy,seeDéroche(1996),246; LlewellynIhssen(2016),51–52. 13 Λεβίτων, κολόβιον, χιτών were shortsleeved or sleeveless tunics. They were produced in Pachomianmonasteriesforinternalconsumption.Iconographicevidenceshowspeasantsand workerswearingthistypeofgarment:Mossakowska-Gaubert(2004),155,157,162. Brought to you by | Australian Catholic University Authenticated Download Date | 6/19/17 4:03 PM TheAnti-UsuryArgumentsoftheChurchFathers 137 markettoselltheproductofhismanuallabor.Theabbottoldhimthattherewas nothingharmfulinthisactivity,providedthathedidnotpersistentlyseektosell hisobject,onlyonceheneededtocryitsprice,andthenitwasuptohimtolower themarketvalueoftheproductalittle.Thus,hewouldfindrest.14 What the abbot is saying obliquely is that the monk should avoid haggling with the buyer15 and sell his product at a cheap price without outbidding his competitors,16 but onlymeethis personal needsand makea meagreprofit, if at all.IntheearlyfifthcenturyacanonofRabbula,BishopofEdessa,stipulated:“If one shall sell the crop for the benefit of the monastery, he shall not take some- thing more, except the price as it sells at the time of that threshing-season.”17 While Evagrius Ponticus advised: “Whether you are selling or buying, take a smalllossonthejustprice.”18 In the hagiographic sources and in canon law the fair price was set at the lowerendof,orbyasmallmargin,belowthemarketvalue.Toacertainextent, thisreflectedtheimperiallegislationwhichnotonlytookintoaccountthemarket price of products in a specific city but also tried to curb overcharging and the speculation that was rampant during periods of scarcity.19 A series of papyri 14 AP6.15,textfromGuy(1993),324–325;cf.“Wemuststrivetoensurethattheproductsofour workarenotdisposedofatadistanceandthatwedonotgoabouthawkingtheminpublic. Consequently,wewillprefertoretreatsomewhatfromthepricethangobeyondourvicinityfor thesakeofsomesmallgain.”(BasilofCaesarea,Reg.fus.37,PG31:1017–20;trans.Silvas2005, 249).“Legitimatewasthepurchaseofaproductforworkandthesaleofaproductwhosevalue wasdependentonthetechnicalskillinvolved.Inthiscaseonewasnotallowedtotalkabout trade”:Salamito(2006),14withreferencetoOpusImperfectuminMatt38(PG56:840). 15 Theyshould“namethepricejustonceandsilentlyacceptwhatwasgiventheminpeace.” (ApophtegmAgathon98[16]citedinWipszycka2011,231),cf.235. 16 On the competition between artisans or traders who were selling their products, see: ἐπορθρίζειταῖςἐμπορίαιςὁκάπηλος,πρὸτῶνὁμοτέχνωντὸοἰκεῖονἐπιδεῖξαιτοῖςὠνουμένοις φιλονεικῶνὡςἂνπρολάβοιτοῦδεομένουτὴνχρείαν,ὑποφθάσαςτοὺςἄλλους,καὶτὸοἰκεῖον ἀπεμπολήσειεν.(GregoryofNyssa,Or.Dom.6,5–9). 17 Rabbula,Canon25citedinAdesi(1990),194.Fortheprecisemarginofprofitonlycomparative evidencefromrabbinicalsourcesisavailable.TheJewishSagesallowedthesellertoraisethe priceofaproductuptoone-sixthofitspurchaseprice:RosenfeldandMenirav(2001),361. 18 EvagriusPonticus,Fond.8(PG40:1260);trans.Sinkewicz(2003),9. 19 Fairpriceasthepriceaproductfetchedinthelocalurbanmarket:evidencefromsecond- centuryAthensandfourth-centuryAntiochandPalestineinLoCascio(2006),230;Rosenfeldand Menirav(2001),364.Thejustpriceasthemarketprice,ortheregulatedpriceortheadministered price: Laiou (2002), 1132: “Almost all of these possibilities were present in Byzantium, with differentweightatdifferenttimes.”Thestatetriedtochecktheriseofpricesoccasionedbythose whoabusedtheirpowerinconditionsofscarcity:thesemightbetheworkerswho,exploitingthe objectiveshortageofmanpoweraftertheJustinianicplague,triedtotripletheirwages—seeNov. 122—orgrainmerchantsintimesoffamine.Sarris(2015),168–170. Brought to you by | Australian Catholic University Authenticated Download Date | 6/19/17 4:03 PM 138 AntigoneSamellas datingfromthefifthcenturyshowsthattheauthoritieswereinterestedincompar- ingpricesfromthedifferentlocalitiesofEgyptsoastobebetterabletosupervise themarket.20 Interestrateswerealsoregulatedbylaw.InA.D.386alawintheTheodosian Codestipulated:“Ifanypersontakingadvantageoftheurgencyoftheneedsofa debtorshouldextortanythingbeyond1%permonth,12%ayear,allowedbylaw     heshallimmediatelyrestorewhatwasrapaciouslytakenandheshallbeobliged topayfourfoldtheamountaspenalty.”21Itwasnotanychangeinthesupplyof, anddemandfor,moneythatdeterminedtherateofinterestbutcustom.Accord- ingly,thecontrolofinflationafter350andtheintroductionofthesolidusdidnot lowertheinterestratesinEgypt.22EmperorJustiniandeclaredhisrespectfor“the established ... customs”23 when he set the terms of maritime loans in 540, but, overall,hetriedtolowertheinterestratesprobablywithaviewtoimplementing theprinciplesoftheChristianmoraleconomy.24 IntheeyesoftheChurchFathersthemarketwasadangerousplace.25Itwas therealmoftheMammon,thebreedinggroundofgreed,foritenslavedwhoever frequentedittotheconjecturalneedstowhichthefanciesofthepublicgaverise. What gave value to products, according to Chrysostom, was not their intrinsic usefulness,ortherationalchoiceofthebuyers,buttheconventionalpreferences ofsocietyatagiventimeandplace.Eachsociallayersoughttoimitatethetastes 20 P. Oxy. 51.3628–36, Parsons (2007), 104–105; also about A.D. 310–360 retailers, perfume- sellers,salt-merchants,fish-saucesellers,informed,everymonth,theauthoritiesofthepurchase priceoftheirproducts:P. Oxy.54.3731andParsons(2007),106. 21 CT2.33.2.In405senatorswereallowedtolendmoneyat6%ayear:CT2.33.4.Whilethe   lenderofwine,oiloranyotherfarmproducewasallowedtocharge50%:CT2.33.1.   22 Carrié (2003), 267. Also comparative evidence, from ancient Near East, Greece and Rome shows that interest rates remained stable throughout the centuries; they were calculated “at standardizedrates”inaway“thataimedatachievinganumericalease,”seeHudson(2000),137, 157. 23 Nov.106,1.AstheshipmastersexplainedtoJustinian,accordingtoancientcustom,there werevariouskindsofmaritimeloans.Interestsforloanstoshipmastersvariedfrom10%onthe   valueoftheloanwhentheborroweracceptedtoshipwheatorbarleyforthecreditorforfreeto 12.5%whenthisdidnothappenandthevesselremainedaway,atleast,forayear,whilewhenit   returnedpromptlytheinterestwaslower:Nov.106,pr.Thelawwasrepealedayearlater. 24 LoanstoshipmastersinthelegislationofJustinianareset,inCI4.32.26.2ofA.D.528andin Nov.110of541at12%peryear,tofarmersloansinkindat12%,tochurchesandotherpious     institutionsat3 %(Nov.120,ofA.D.544,section 6,lines28–30),forthemerchantsandbankersat 8%,forthehigharistocracyat4%andfortherestat6%.Gofas(2002),1095–1098.       25 Ἂνδὲἀπὸτῆςοἰκίαςἐπὶτὴνἀγορὰνἔλθῃς,γυμνὸςτῶνὅπλων[withouttheprotectionof prayer]τούτωνεὑρεθεὶς,εὐχείρωτοςἔσῃτοῖςἐπηρεάζουσινἅπασι(Chrysostom,Hom.Rom.12: 20,3,PG51:177). Brought to you by | Australian Catholic University Authenticated Download Date | 6/19/17 4:03 PM TheAnti-UsuryArgumentsoftheChurchFathers 139 andbuyingpreferencesofthoseimmediatelyaboveit.Unwittingly,therelatively affluentstrataweredriventothelifestyleofthearistocracy.Everybodytriedto outbid in display the one immediately above him.26 Therefore, as we shall see, “the middle classes”27 ran into debt to meet the requirements of conspicuous consumption. Indeed, one has first to assess the extent and different forms of indebtedness in late antiquity in order to understand why the religion that condemnedusury,forsomeofthereasonsthatwillbeanalyzedbelow,resorted tocredit,bothasalenderaswellasaborrower,inordertofinanceitscharitable program. I Borrowing and conspicuous consumption AccordingtoGregoryofNyssa,althoughhumansshouldhavebeencontentwith the satisfaction of their elementary needs, they were carried away by prejudice and sought to surpass the limits of necessity. Everyone strove to procure every pleasureanddelightfortheeyesandheevenregrettedthathecouldnothavethe skyashisrooftopandahouseasspaciousastheglobe.28Insearchofrefinement anddistinction(ἡἐπιθυμίατῆςπεριεργίας)heusedmarblefromNumidia,Thes- saly and Syene of Egypt for the columns that supported the porticoes, and Phrygianstonetodecoratetheinteriorofhishouses.Hiseyeswerelustingafter thepleasureproducedbythefortuitouscombinationsofpurplediesprinkledon 26 οὐδὲνκρίσειπράττομενἀλλ΄ἁπλῶςκαὶὡςἔτυχεν...Καλὰτὰσηρικὰἱμάτια;...ὑπόληψιςἐστι καὶ πρόληψις ἀνθρώπινη, οὐκ ἐν τῇ φύσει τὸ κάλλος ἔχει (Chrysostom, Hom. 1Tim. XVII, PG 62:596).On themimeticoriginsofgreedsee:ἕκαστοςτὸν πρὸαὐτοῦ ζηλοῦντεςἐπέτεινοντὸ νόσημα, καὶ τὸν οὐ βουλόμενονὁπρολαβώνἐρεθίζει.Ὅτανγὰρἴδωσινοἰκίαςλαμπρὰς... καὶ ἀργυρᾶσκεύη,...πάνταπράττουσιν,ὥστευπερβάλλεσθαι·ὥστεοἱπρῶτοιτῶνδευτέρωναἴτιοι γίνονται,κἀκεῖνοιτῶνμετ’αὐτούς.(Chrysostom,Hom.Jo.LXV,3,PG59:364). 27 How do we define “the middles classes”? From their houses which paid lip service to “peristyletraditionsbyusinganoddmosaicorcolumn,”e.g.theHouseofBronzesatSardis.   Tradesmen,buildersorpublicofficials,chartulariiornumerarii(i.e.accountantsintheofficesof   provincialgovernors),mightbetheirowners:Ellis(2004)43,45;(1997)46;Headsofworkshops, skilledworkersliketheonewhoworkedinaperfumeshopforthreeyearsinA.D.549(P.Med.I 48)foraratherhighremunerationbelongedtothismiddlestratum:Freu(2015),171.Archeological remainsofmacellafromAsiaMinor,Syria,andPalestine,attesttotherelativewell-beingofsome shopkeepers,blacksmiths,glassblowers,painters,perfumers,bakersandbeansellersfromthe fourthtothesixthcentury:Lavan(2012),344,366,363. 28 ὅσατῇαἰσθήσεικαλάἐστι...διὰματαίαςπρολήψεωςὡςκατ’ἀλήθειανὄντατοῖςἀπαιδεύτοις νομίζεται...Ὡςγὰροὐχὶσώματιτὸχρειῶδεςπορίζων,ἀλλὰτοῖςὀφθαλμοῖςἐπιτηδεύωντέρψεις καὶἐντρυφήματαλυπεῖταισχεδὸνὅτιμὴτὸνοὐρανὸνἐποίησενὑπορώφιον...(GregoryofNyssa, Eccl.422,4,7,8;320,9–12,15). Brought to you by | Australian Catholic University Authenticated Download Date | 6/19/17 4:03 PM 140 AntigoneSamellas thewhitenessofthemarbleaswellasbythevariegatedcolorstaintingthepurity ofglass,nottospeakofthemosaicsdazzlingwiththeirbrillianceeventhefeetof those treading on them.29 The capitals of the doorways were embellished with ivory, overpainted with gold and silver hammered on with studs. Everything “contrivedforastrikingandeleganteffect:”themultipleentrance-porches,gates and gateways, the ostentatious baths“gushing with floods of water” and, adja- centtothese,thegymnasiums,and,acrosstheporticoesencirclingthebuilding, themarblestatuesandthepaintings,which“prostitutetheeyes”byrepresenting thenakednessthatoughtnottohavebeenseen.30 Thepassionateeroticizedattachmenttomatterknewnobounds,theneedfor luxury increased every day, seeking to appropriate for one’s own enjoyment all the produce of the earth.31 Asterius of Amasea described luxurious banquets in Pontus which included wine from Phoenicia, pheasants, dishes seasoned with Indian condiments and served in silver vessels to the accompaniment of musi- cians, dancers and mimes. It was as if the host’s worth was reflected in the brillianceofhispossessions.32Chrysostomcomplainedthatitwasimpossiblefor hiscontemporariestousefurnituresimplytorest;insteadtheypreferredtoshow off to their guests by presenting at their dinners silver bounded ivory couches withsoftmattresses.33 The scarcity prestige of a good determined itsworth. According to Chrysos- tom, silk clothes were considered a luxury merchandise in Antioch but were cheapintheregionofSeriansfromwhichtheywereimported.Thesamewastrue forthespicesandperfumesbroughtfromArabiaandIndiawhichwerecheapin theirplaceoforiginbutexpensiveinAntioch.Itisclearthatthemoreexpensive and rare a product was, the more sought-after it became by the elite across the empire.34 Every year merchants went to foreign lands, and contracted a loan to build ships and hire crews, in order to fetch exotic products to their 29 Eccl.,322,10–12;321,1–8,323,8–12;trans.HallandMoriarty(1993),63–64. 30 Eccl.,322,7–9;322,16–324,2;trans.HallandMoriarty(1993),64. 31 Αὔξουσαγὰρκαθ’ἡμέρανἐπὶτὸπεριεργότερονἡτρυφὴ(AsteriusofAmasea,1.5.3);ὡςμικρὰς πόλειςοἰκοῦσιτὰςοἰκίας,λουτροῖςκαὶοἴκοιςποικίλοιςκαὶστοαῖς...παντοίᾳπολυτελείᾳκεκοσ- μημένας(3.12.32). 32 1.5.3;ὁμάτηνπλουτῶντῷκόσμῳτῆςκλίνηςπεριαστράπτεται,ἀργυρᾶςσφαίραςἐχούσηςκαὶ ἁλύσειςἀντὶτῶνσχοίνων(AsteriusofAmasea,3.12.4). 33 μὴμοικλίναςἀργυρενδέτουςκατασκεύαζε,ἀλλὰκέχρησοκλίνῃκαὶστρώμασιμὴπρὸςἐπίδειξ- ινπεποιημένοις,ἀλλὰπρὸςἀνάπαυσιν,μηδὲἐλεφάντιναςκλίνας·σύστειλονσαυτόν(Chrysostom, Hom.Eph.XIII,4,PG62:98). 34 Hom.1.Tim.XVII,3(PG62:596);exoticproducts,textilesandperfumes,fromIndiaandPersia alsoinHom.II,3(PG62:513).Certainly,Chrysostomwasawarethatsupplyanddemanddeter- minedthevalueofaproduct:Mitchell(2004),108. Brought to you by | Australian Catholic University Authenticated Download Date | 6/19/17 4:03 PM TheAnti-UsuryArgumentsoftheChurchFathers 141 clients.35 Archeological findings from late antique Corinth, Halicarnassos and Apameiaconfirmtheexpensivetasteoftheimperialandcivicaristocracy.36Those who could not import diamond-bordered ivory panels from India or Alexandria had objects made of bone in their houses. In the fourth century “the volume of objectsofboneincreasedparalleltothoseofivory,asthelesswealthyemulated theluxuriouspossessionsoftheelite.”37 AccordingtothetestimonyofBasilofCaesarea,artisansoftenincurreddebts inordertoimitatethelife-styleofthehigherclasses.Forashortwhileafterthey had received the money from the lender they radiated with a false brilliance, borrowedfromelsewhere,evocativeofthesplendoroftheirnewwayoflife.Now nodelicaciesweremissingfromtheirtable,andattheinstigationoftheirwives, they bought more expensive garments and dressed their children in comelier clothes and put more refined and variegated cloaks on their slaves and hosted flatterersandsymposiastsattheirhouse.38Buttheirjoydidnotlastforlong.As soon as the money ran dry “they began to hate the days rushing towards the deadline and to fear the months that fathered interests.” “Having given them- selvesovertoprofligacyanduselessluxuries”theytriedtomeettheobligations ofthefirstloanbycontractingadebtwithanotherbankersoastofleeinsolvency. 35 σὺδὲεἰςἸνδοὺςἐμπορεύῃκαὶβαρβαρικῇπαρακινδυνεύειςθαλάσσῃκαὶἐνιαυσίοιςναυτιλίαις σεαυτὸνἐπιδίδωςἵνατοῖςἐκεῖθενἀγωγίμοιςτήντροφὴνἡδύνῃς(GregoryofNyssaOr.Dom.52,9– 12);καὶγὰρὁἔμποροςθέλειπλουτεῖν...ἀλλὰκαὶπλοῖονκατασκευάζεταικαὶσυνάγειναύτας,... καὶχρυσίονδανείζεταικαὶπερᾷπέλαγος,καὶεἰςξένηνἄπεισιγῆν(Chrysostom,Hom.Jo.3,PG 59:28);famousMuzirispapyrus(P.Vind.G40822)indicatestheastronomicalsumsinvolvedto financebycreditatripwithpredominantlyluxurygoodsfromMuziris(modernCranganore)in IndiatoMyosHormosonintheRedSeainthemid-secondcenturyandcertainlyatteststothe enormouswealthoftheelite;forthisandfortraditionalargumentsagainstthecorruptingeffects oforientalluxuries,seeParker(2002),64,75. 36 Corinth:Rife(2010),736–740;inlateantiquitywewitnessa“surgeinarchitecturalcreativity andeccentricity”andduringdining“externalviewingtakesprecedenceoverexchangewithinthe group”:Stephenson(2016),60,63,68.Tothearistocracybelongedmembersoftheimperialcourt, likeCharidemos,whohaslefthisepigraphictracesinavillainfifth-centuryHalicarnassosand Apellios in sixth-century Apamea.For the former Ellis (2004), 42–43, and for the latter Balty (1997),92.Forarcheologicalfindsofgildeddrinkingglasses,silverkniveswithivoryhandles, silverdishesandtextileswithDionysiacscenesusedinthediningroom,seeVroom(2007),345, 362, 332, 328, n. 36. Luxurious clothes decorated couches, dining seats (stoibas) and doors: Asterius,1.5.2;lateantiquetextileswithmythologicalandhuntingscenesandpersonificationsof seasonalbountyfromlateantiqueEgypt,illustratedinThomas(2016),21–53. 37 SternandHadjilazaro-Thimme(2007),302;diamond-borderedpanel,Nr. 113,69–70.Chris- tian taste for luxury: About A.D. 432, Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria sent ivory chairs to the PatriarchofConstantinople:ibid.,297. 38 BasilofCaesarea,Hom.Ps.XIV,4(PG29:276),onthispassageseeGiacchero(1979),457;Hom. Ps.XIV,2(PG29:268). Brought to you by | Australian Catholic University Authenticated Download Date | 6/19/17 4:03 PM 142 AntigoneSamellas Richonlyintheirdreams,theyborrowedandspentwithoutrespitetilltheylost everything.39 For Chrysostom the ruinous pursuit of distinction was tantamount to an infatuation with empty images. Everyone was obsessed with how he would appearinthepubliceye:likethelovesickmanthatclingstothesoullesspicture ofthewomanhedesiresmanywouldrunwildwhenevertheysawtokens,oreven artisticreproductions,ofwealth.Whiletraversingthemarketplacetheywouldfix their gaze dumfounded on the wealthy, admiring their expensive clothes and theirhorseswiththegoldenharnessesandtheirslavesstrutting,sickwithlong- ing to possess the product of their fancy.40 As a result the working poor did everythingpossibletoobtainbeautifulclothesandpurchaseahouseholdslave. Some would even prefer to die of hunger than deprive themselves of silver dishes.41 The Christianization of the symbols of status hardly affected the climate of display. According to Asterius when members of the aristocracy came out in public, they were dressed in such a fashion that they appeared “like painted walls” to those they met for their “gay-colored dresses” were ornamented with “leopards, bears,dogs,treesandrocks.”“Andthemorereligiousamongthem” hadorderedtheweaverstodecoratetheirexpensiveclotheswithstoriesfromthe Gospels,“Christtogetherwithallhisdisciplesandeachoneofthemiracles...In doing thisthey considerthemselvesto bereligious andtobewearing garments thatarepleasingtoGod.”Asteriusfrowneduponareligiositythatwasasostenta- tious as the elaborate clothes that advertised it. Even if the figures on the garments were supposed to magically evoke or invite the good fortune of their ownerandaverttheevileye,asHenryMaguirehaswritten,thefactremainsthat inlateantiquityluckanddivinefavorwerethoughttoprovethatonewaswealthy bymerit;awidespreadconvictionthatwasverydifficultfortheChurchFathersto eradicate.42 How can we verify that the frenzy for prestigious goods among the affluent stratawasfinancedbycredit?Throughouttheperiodunderstudythewelltodo 39 Ibid. 40 Hom.1Cor.XI,4(PG61:92–93);cf.Hom.2Cor.XXIV,4(61:568–569);forotherpassagessee Lavan(2007),162–167;Leyerle(1994),29–36. 41 Chrysostom,Deinan.gl.13,14,textfromMalingrey(1972),90,175–180;92,205–94,208. 42 Asterius,1.3.1.-1.4.3;trans.inMaguire(1990),220;andforhisinterpretation,see217–220; iconographicevidencefromTunisiashowsthatthisexpensivetasteforornamentwasdiffused amongwealthypeasantsandgladiators:Baratte(2004),122–124;luxuriousclotheswerecapital tobestored:126;ἀλλ’ἤδητινές,φησί,καὶἀρχῶνκαὶπλούτουκαὶτιμῶνἠξιώθησαν,εὐχῇπρὸς τοῦτοχρησάμενοι,καὶθεοφιλεῖςεἶναιδιὰτῆςταύτηςεὐκληρίαςὑπενοήθησαν(GregoryofNyssa, Or.Dom.17,19–22). Brought to you by | Australian Catholic University Authenticated Download Date | 6/19/17 4:03 PM TheAnti-UsuryArgumentsoftheChurchFathers 143 were often in debt for they borrowed money to buy some “profitable magis- tracy.”43 Apart from that, in an early seventh-century source we encounter a silversmith, who was in a difficult financial situation, being advised to buy a relatively expensive slave by contracting a loan and it is also attested that duringthe reignofJustinianmenof considerablewealthborrowedmoney from bankers to buy houses in the name of their wife or of some other relative of theirs.44 Theownershipofahouse,alongwiththepossessionofanumberofslaves, distinguishedthemoreprosperousmembersofthemiddleclassesfromtherestof the population. The relatively affluent assistants of Libanius in the municipal schoolofAntioch,whenthecitystoppedpayingthemorremuneratedthemafter a long delay,45 found themselves in dire economic straits. Indicative of their dismal position, according to the Antiochene rhetor, was that they could no longeraffordtoownahouseorpossessmanyslaves:“someofthemhavenolittle placeoftheirownbutliveinrentedroomslikecobblers.Anyonewhohasbought a house, has not yet paid off the loan, so that the house purchaser is worse off than those who are not [owners] of their house. As for slaves, one has three, anothertwo,anothernoteventhatmany...”46Theyusedtogotothesilversmith to buy jewels but now they had to hand over their wife’s ear-rings to the baker becausetheyhadpledgedthemtohimeachtimetheywenttoborrowcornfrom him. Many of them even avoided marriage for they could not support them- selves.47 When in the late fourth century in Amasea in Pontus the congregation of Bishop Asterius heard him recommending to them not to be preoccupied with money they usually retorted: “How are we going to live without money? How 43 ἀξιώματακερδαλέαὠνήσασθαι...τὸπᾶνἀπώλεσαν(Chrysostom,Hom.Matt.XXVIII,5,PG 57:358).Intheearlyfifthcentury,SynesiusofCyrenewrotethat“thosewhowouldruleusinLibya SuperiorandLibyaInferioraswellasinEgyptcouldnotpassunnoticedfortheywerefollowedby acortegeofcreditors.”(SynesiusofCyrene,Ep.101,textfromGarzya2000,225,25–28).Thewell- todotriedtowriteoffthedebtsincurredforthepurchaseofofficebyexploitingtheprovincials. Justinian’sNov.8pr.(A.D.535). 44 LeontiusofNeapolis,LifeofJohntheAlmsgiver370,106–116,ὥςτινεςμὲνδανεισάμενοιἢ δανειζόμενοιπαρὰτῶνἐκτῶνἐκτοῦεἰρημένουσυστήματοςχρήματαἠγόρασανἢἀγοράζουσι κτῆσινἀκίνητονὀνόματιτῶνοἰκείωνγαμετῶνἢἄλλωντινῶν...ὥστεδιὰτῆςτοιαύτηςμεθόδου ἐκείνουςμὲνἀπορίανπροΐσχεσθαι(CJEd.7.7). 45 Τradesmen talked about the teachers’ high incomes: Or. 31.25; trans. Norman (2000), 77. Sourcesanddifficultiesofpayment:Or.31.22,16,19;trans.Norman(2000)76,74,75. 46 Or.31.11;trans.Norman(2000),73. 47 Or.31.12–13;trans.Norman(2000)73.Orderonbankerstopayone’shouserent:καὶτόκους αὐτοὺςτελεῖνκαὶστεγονόμιαδιδόναι(Justinian,Ed.9.7.2);Barnish(1985),21. Brought to you by | Australian Catholic University Authenticated Download Date | 6/19/17 4:03 PM

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