The Altar and the City: Botticelli's Mannerism and the Reform of Sacred Art

33 Pages·9.795 MB·English

by  Burroughs C.

The Altar and the City: Botticelli's "Mannerism" and the Reform of Sacred Art
Author(s): Charles Burroughs
Source: Artibus et Historiae, Vol. 18, No. 36 (1997), pp. 9-40
Published by: IRSA s.c.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1483596
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CHARLES BURROUGHS
The Altara nd the City:
Botticelli's" Mannerisma"n d the Reformo f Sacred Art
The illusiono f transparenctyo an ulteriorre alityis a fundamen- art movementk nowna s expressionismw, hichr espondedt o exter-
tal concern in Renaissance,i ndeed early modern,E uropeana rt. nal crisis with formald istortionisn tensifyingin, some practitioners,
Leon BattistaA lbertci oinedt he famousa nd fatefulm etaphoro f the the emphasiso n spirituavl alues.3B utt he most expliciti,f not exag-
high-stylep icturea s a kindo f windowt hroughw hich a beholder gerated,a ccounto f mannerismin terms of crisis, that of Arnold
views a space coterminouws ithh is or hers,a nd witht he same prop- Hauser,d rew inspiratiofnr omm ore general,i ndeede pochalt rans-
erties.' But withint he westernt raditionof illusionismv,a riousa rtists formationosf late nineteentha nd earlyt wentieth-centusroyc ietya nd
have at times employedd evices of stylizationp, reciositya,n d defa- culture. Hauser, in a work of 1965 subtitled The crisis of the
miliarizatioton focus attentiono n a work'sf acture,t hus undermining Renaissance and the origino f moderna rt, situates mannerismin
thoughn ever entirelya bandoningth e claim to transparencyS.i nce a grand narrativet hat culminatesi n symbolisma nd surrealism;
the early1 920s the term" mannerisht"as been in generalu se among remarkablyh, e ignores such more obvious manifestationos f or
art historiantso designates elf-consciouslaym bivalenat nd reflexive responsest o modernc ulturacl risisa s Expressionisman d Dada.4
approachest o artisticp roductione,s peciallyi n the sixteenthc entu- Currents cholarshipo, f whateverm ethodologicadli rectionh, as
ry.A nd the successors of HeinrichW 61fflitnh, e effectivef oundero f movedf ar beyondH auser'sc onfidenat ssignmento f commonc har-
the modelo f successivea rt historicapl eriods,n otoriouslsyo on com- acter and teleologyt o widelyd isparatec ulturaml anifestationws,h ile
plicated his clear and fundamentald istinction between the neglectingc oncrete historicacl onnections.I ndeed,i n an excellent
Renaissance and baroquee pochs by the insertiono f a distinct recentr eviewo f the art historicalli teraturoen mannerismE, lizabeth
phase or even periodc alled" mannerism."2 Cropperd oes not mentionH auser.5N evertheless, Hauser'sw ork
From the beginningm annerismw as a category that engen- can stills timulatefr uitfuiln quiryT.h is paperw illt ake up two central,
deredm ored issensiont hani t broughct larityn, ot least in the assess- relatedt hemes of Hauser'sw ork:h is emphasis on philosophical
ment of the place of social historicafla ctorsi n the emergencea nd skepticisma nd, on a moref undamentalel vel,o n the notiono f crisis
persistenceo f mannerisat rt. The formulatioonf a manneristp hase in the elucidatioonf the enablingc ircumstancefso r mannerisat rt.
or periodl argelyc oincidedw itht he periodo f economica nd political Hauser's treatmenot f skepticismis emblematico f his overall
crisisi n CentraEl uropea fter1 918; it was coloredb y the rise of the approachA. majorp rotagonisotf his grand narrativies Montaigne,
9
CHARLESB URROUGHS
1) Sandro Botticelli, <<Lamentationo ver the Dead Christ,,,A lte Pinakothek,M unich.M arburgI ndex/ Art Resource.
describeda s one of the "mosti mportanatn d representativpeh iloso- The notiono f crisis has been conspicuousb y its absence in
phers of mannerism."H6e exemplifiesi,n Hauser'sv iew, an early recenta rt historicalli teraturoen mannerisitm ageryw, hethera pplied
modemc urrenot f skepticismth at constituted" oneo f the most vivid to developmentisn the widerw orldo r, more narrowlyto, the proto-
demonstrationosf the collapseo f the system of values whicht he cols of image-makingA. cruciale pisode was a conferenceo f 1961
Renaissanceh ad takeno ver fromt he MiddleA ges and stillb elieved at whichE mst GombrichJ,o hn Shearmana, nd CraigH ughS myth
in."S kepticismin, otherw ords,i s not only a centrafl actori n an epis- read importanpta perst hat, in differenwt ays, all movedt he discus-
temologicacl risis manifestedin variousc ulturadl omainsa nd forms sion of mannerismem phaticallayw ay fromt he conceptiono f an art
of expressionb, ut also a key to the transcendencoe f crisist hrough of crisis.7
the satisfactionof new needs and concerns. Smyth'sc ontributio-n in particulahri s emphasiso n certainf or-
mal paradigm-s willb e cruciailn a laters tage of this discussion.
10
THEA LTARA NDT HEC ITYB: OTTICELL"I'MS ANNERISAMN"D T HER EFORMO F SACREDA RT
Shearman'ss omewhatr estrictiveb, ut highlyi nfluentiadl,e finitionof
mannerisat rt (his paperw as soon publisheds eparatelyi n expand-
ed forma s a highlys uccessfulb ook)c haracterizeist in termso f the
exquisitea nd eye-catchingd isplayo f artisticv irtuosityo,f ten eliding
or occludinga ny furtherp urpose.8S hearmanh imselfr eferst o the
possibilitoyf a doubtlessp artiasl ociologicael xplanationfo r the phe-
nomena in question;i ndeed, a notablea spect of Shearman'sd is-
cussion is his inclusiono f, indeed emphasiso n, a wide range of
objets de luxe, not just paintingsa nd sculpturest,h at displayc om-
mon aestheticv alues.T his situatest he relevanta rtisticp roductioinn
relationto a specifics ocial milieut, hat of the ultra-refinehdo, thouse
courtc ulturee mergingi n variouss ites in the earlys ixteenthc entury,
markedb y confidenta ttitudeso n the part of patronsa nd artists
alike.9O n the other hand, it tends to separatem annerismu, nder-
stood as a fashion in courtlyv isual culture,f rom significatoroyr
expressivef unctionse, xcept in terms of the celebratione, nhance-
ment,a nd even legitimatioonf social standinga nd politicapl ower.10
Indeed, Shearman'sd iscussionb elongs, at least in retrospectt,o
a continuingcu rrento f livelyi nterdisciplinawroyr ko n early modem
Europeanc ourtsa nd the culturaal mbiancea nd (self-) representa-
tionals trategieso f emergenta bsolutism."1
1. Crackingt he Window:T he Fragmentationo f Painting
In this studyI am concemedt o rethinkth e issue of the relation-
ship of certain" mannerisatr"t isticp henomena- as well as the pro-
tocols constitutivien the makingo f the pertinenitm ages - to histor-
ical shifts and occurrencest o which the term crisis might be
appropriatealyp plied.I startw itha paradoxi:n workso n mannerism
as such, there is hardlya mentiono f SandroB otticellit,h ought he
monographilci teraturoen Botticelliin sistentlyr eferst o his manner-
ist or at least manneredt endencies.1I2n partt his clearlyh as to do
witht he persistenta uthoritoyf Vasari'sh istoriographicfarla mework
in which Botticellia, majora rtisto f the late quattrocentofi,t s firmly
2) Sandro Botticelli, ((PietianM, useo Poldi-Pezzoli,M ilan.
intot he second age of the Vite,a t a chronologicaal nd conceptual
MarburgI ndex/ Art Resource.
removef rom artistsl abeled as manneristsb y most art historians,
and all includedin Vasari'st hirda ge.13N evertheless,I shall argue
that importanfte atureso f Botticelli'asr t help elucidatec entralc on-
cems of artistsg enerallys o labeled.I am concernedn ot with the
worksp roducedin the elegantw orldo f LaurentinFe lorencet, hough My initiald iscussioni s structuredin a somewhat Wilfflinian
these occasionallyr eceivem entiona, lbeiti n passing,i n discussions rhetoricaslt rategya roundt he contrasto f two, roughlyc ontemporary
of mannerismn, ot least as LaurentinFe lorencei n so many ways paintingsb y Botticelli.T he first is the Lamentationi n the Alte
anticipated- or providedp aradigmfso r - the courtlye nvironments PinakothekM, unich[F ig.1 ], one of a groupo f altarpieceps aintedb y
congenial, as noted above, to the productiono f mannerista rt. Botticellbi etween the late 1480s and the mid 1490s - another
InsteadI, wish to focus on laterw orkse xecutedi n the periodo f the majore xamplet o whichI shalll aterr eferi s the slightlyla ter in
Pieta
dissolutiono f the Laurentinuet opiaa nd otheru ntowardev ents that the Poldi-PezzoMli useumin Milan[ Fig.2 ] - thatm arka majors hift
together constituteda crisis situationa nd emphaticallyp roduced fromh is previouso euvre.15T hese paintingsh ave elicitede mphatic
a crisis sensibility.14 dislikea nd disapprovaoln the parto f manys cholars;in discussions
11
CHARLESB URROUGHS
-
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': ii " 14
PIAZZA iss(cid:127)?
SMAANRTIAA ~ ~ N oil - ),, AX ,
NOVELLA -? N
!1
z- 0 .N
0 -
---- Route of the civic Corpus Christi processior- 4) Sandro Botticelli,< <(ThCe alumnyo f Apelles,>, Uffizi,
Florence. MarburgI ndex/ Art Resource.
3) The environs of S. Paolino and the Borgognissanti. Lucas
Willis, BinghamtonU niversity,G eographyD epartment. circle.G enerallya date of c.1494 is assignedt o the paintinogn styl-
isticg rounds,a nd it has been associatedr ecentlyn, ot least because
of the strikingb ut circumstanticaol nnectionw ith Polizianow, itht he
deatho f Lorenzod e' Mediciin April1 492.17T he evidence,a s we will
see, indicatest hat the paintingin deedb elongst o the turbulenpte ri-
of the Lamentationw, e frequentleyn counterr eferencest o the harsh od followingL orenzo'sd eath.
austerityo f this and similarw orks,w hichs eem to embodya regres- If paintedc .1492-94, Botticelli'Ls amentationis slightlye arlier
sive tendency, even a renunciationo f the foundingp rincipleso f thano r even roughlyc ontemporarwyi tha n imageo f radicalldyi ffer-
Renaissancea rt and the humanisti deals underlyinigt .16T hus the ent characterb y the same artist, his pictorialr econstructionof
MunichL amentationa, veryw ide paintingin relationto its height,i s a famous ancient painting,t he Calumnyo f Apelles [Fig. 4], as
characterizedb y a frieze-likea rrangemenotf figuresi n fronto f the describedi n an extendede kphrasisb y Lucian( thisi s usuallyd ated
blacknesso f the tomb;t here is no landscapes etting,n or any sense c.1495, but its wealth of detail points to a long preparatory
of recessioni n depth. process).18B otticelli'sp aintings oon came into the possession of
No sources exist for the date and circumstanceosf the com- a friendo f the artist'st,h oughi t is unlikelhy e was the patroni;n any
mission.T he presenceo f St. Paul referst o the documentedp rove- case, the evidences uggests that,o nce again,w e have to do with
nance of the paintingfr omt he parishc hurcho f S. Paolo, usually a paintingin whicht he artist'sp ersonalc oncernsw ere involved-
knowna s S. Paolino,i n the vicinityo f SS. Ognissantiin Florence and variousa uthorsh ave speculateda bout the kinds of calumny
[Fig. 3]; unfortunatelny,o evidence indicatest he particulalro cation that may have been directeda t Botticelolir his friends.19
of the paintingw ithint he churchn or the identitys,t ill less interests, Amongt hose friendsa, connectionw ith Polizianoc an be confi-
of the patron(s).W e know, however, that Botticellih imselfw as dently surmised: a work of such conspicuous learning surely
a near neighboro f the churchw, hichh ad ratheru nusuala dministra- requirede xtensivec ounsel froma scholarw ithp rofoundk nowledge
tive status as a priory.T hanks to the interventiono f Lorenzoi l of ancientl iteraturaen d interesti n the visuala rts, and Polizianois
Magnificos,i nce 1477 the title of priora nd the revenuesa ccruing an obviousc andidatee, ven withoutth e institutionaaflf iliatiown ithS .
fromt he prioryh ad been enjoyedb y Polizianot,u tort o Lorenzo's Paolino.M oreovera, prominenfti gurei n the sculpturadl ecorationo f
male childrena nd a leadingi ntellectuainl and beyondt he Medicean the granda rchitectursaelt tingo f the Calumnyc learlyr epresentsS t.
12
THEA LTARA NDT HEC ITYB: OTTICELL"I'MS ANNERISAMN"D T HER EFORMO F SACREDA RT
Paul,o ne of a numbero f Jewisho r Christiafni guresi n the painting formed in 1491, with an accompanyingp oem by Bernardo
ignoredb y manyc riticsw ho see onlya n evocationo f classicala ntiq- Rucellai.27In deedc ertaind etails in the paintings how dependence
uity and its art.20T he presumedi nvolvemenot f Polizianoa nd the directlyo n Lucian'st ext; in particulaAr,l bertid escribes only the
presenceo f St. Paul in bothp aintingsh, oweverd ifferenitn type and dramatisp ersonae, withouta ny mentiono f the setting. For this,
pictorialt reatment,s trongly suggest some connection between Botticellwi, ho we knoww as interestedin architecturhe,a d to resort
them. to Lucian'sv ersion;t his may well have been his primarmy otivef or
Literarya nd visual versions of Lucian'se kphrasisw ere not doings o. Needlesst o say, he elaboratedth e settingf ar beyonda ny-
uncommonin quattrocentIot aly.2W1 e know,f or instanceo, f a paint- thingd escribedb y Lucianh imself,i ntroducinfgo, r example,m ateri-
ing of the subjecti n the possessiono f Lorenzoi l Magnificoin; an al from yet anothere kphrasisw rittenb y Lucians o as to institute
inventoryo f the Medicip alace it is describeda s "paintedin the a paragonen ot only withA pelles but also the equallyc elebrated
Frenchs tyle"( allaf ranzese).22S ome of Botticelli'esa rlierm ytholog- ancientp ainterZ euxis.28
ical paintingsw, itht heirc ourtlya ir,c oulda lso perhapsh ave been so The Calumnyis Albertianno t only in subjectm atterb, ut also in
describedh; is versiono f the Calumnyth eme,o n the otherh and,i s termso f pictoriaflo rmatT. he ekphrasisd escribingA pelles'sp ainting
resolutelya ll'anticaT. he actioni s set withint he grand,p erspectival- serves in the De Pictura,a s Cast has shown,a s an exampleo f what
ly orderedc lassical architecturoe f a receptionh all, the walls of Albertci alls the historia( istoriain the Italianv ersion)a, matterb oth
whicha re adornedw itha numbero f reliefs culpturesa nd statues, of subjectm atter( inventio)a nd pictoriasl tructuring.2In9 terms of
includingt hat of St. Paul, in scalloped niches. Whateveri cono- Alberti'st heoreticapl osition,t he historiai mpliest he rationacl on-
graphicp ointsc an be made aboutt he subjectso f these reliefs- structionw ithina discretef rame (the "window"o)f an illusiono f
theirs heer multipliciptye rhapsi nhibitsin terpretatio-n they clearly three-dimensionsapl ace that serves as a matrixfo r - indeedi t is
reinforceth e generalc lassicismo f the setting. presupposedb y - the representatioonf a clearlyd efinedd ramatic
This paintingis , withoutd oubt,a bravurap iece; Botticellci on- event. The action in Botticelli'Cs alumnyo f Apelles occurs in just
ducts a paragone with antiquityj, ust as has been claimed for such a perspectivallyc onstructeds pace of Albertiani nspiration,
FilippinoL ippiw hen, eithers hortlyb efore or soon after Lorenzo's embodiedi n a magnificenctl assicalh all.30I n termso f his own artis-
death,h e painteds cenes fromt he storieso f Meleagera nd Laocoon tic resources, therefore,B otticelli'sim age correspondsc losely to
in the porticoo f Lorenzo'fsa mousv illaa t Poggioa Caiano.23T he Alberti'sp rescriptionasb out the natureo f paintingi tself. For the
theme of the dead Meleagerh ad been held up by Albertiin his De Albertianno tiono f the historiai s not restrictedto the magniloquent
picturaa s a primee xampleo f the subjectm attera ppropriatfeo r the narrativesr, eligiouso r secular,c onjuredu p by the idea of historical
type of paintingh e advocatesi n thatt reatise.2A4 lbertiw, ho had died paintingT. he themeo f the Calumnoyf Apelles,e speciallya s depict-
in 1472 afters pendingm ucho f the last decade or so of his life in ed by Botticelltia, kes the formo f a dramatinc arrativbeu t in ordert o
Florencew, as a culturapl aragoni n the courto f LorenzoP: oliziano present,t hrought he device of allegorya, timeless moralm essage,
himselfw rotet he prefacet o the editiop rincepso f the treatiseo n one that could most appropriateblye associated,a s we saw, with
architectureis,s ued in Florencei n 1485.25D oubtlesst he De Pictura, exemplav irtutifsr omC hristiansc ripture.
thoughw rittena bout 1435, was still importanitn Florentinae rtistic Botticelli'Cs alumnyis by no means,o f course,t he onlyw orki n
circlesi n the last decade of the centurya, ll the mores o as no other which Botticelldi emonstratedh is skill in perspectivef,o r which he
theoreticadl iscussiono f the principleos f perspectivea s appliedi n was citedi n one of the most importanRt enaissancetr eatiseso n per-
paintingh ad supplantedit . spective,t hat of LucaP aciolio f 1494.31B ut iconographayn d moral
Botticelli'sC alumnyr eferst o Alberti'st reatisei n clear terms. tone, as well as pictoriaml ethod,p roclaimth e paintinga n example,
The latter,o riginallwy rittenin Latin,w as accessiblet o Botticelliin if not a kindo f manifestoo, f a specificallyA lbertianp erspectival
Alberti'so wn Italiant ranslationo r ratherv ersion, which made it paintingI. t makes sense as an attempto n the parto f Botticellbi,y
accessiblet o practicinagr tists,f ew of whom were literatei n Latin. now a prominenfti gurei n Florencet, o deflectc riticismfo r ignoring
The treatisei ncludesa versiono f Lucian'se kphrasisb, ut withc er- the newly establishedn ormso f pictoriael xpression,a s indeed he
tain distinguishinegle mentst hat recuri n Botticelli'psi ctoriavle rsion; had been doingi n his religioups aintingosf the same periodo, r a lit-
clearly,B otticelulis ed Alberti'vs ersion.M oreoverB, otticelli'psa inting tle earlier.I n otherw ords,i n Botticelli'ws orko f the mid-1490st,h e
respondst o the discursivec ontexto f Alberti'sp assage, the require- Albertiadnr eamo f a rationaal nd unifiedm ethodo f visualr epresen-
mentt hat a painterb e learned,n ot least in literaturien, ordert o be tationg ave way to a considereda nd self-conscioussp linterinogf the
able to developp ictoriailn ventions.26 art of paintingi nto irreconcilabltee ndencies. Differentp urposes
On the other hand, Lucian'st ext was accessible to Botticelli requiredd ifferentp rotocolst, hought he same intense seriousness
throughh is learnedf riendsw, hose interesti n the subjecti s illustrat- informeda ll.
ed, for example,b y an enactmenot f the Calumnyo f Apelles per-
13
CHARLESB URROUGHS
5) FraA ngelico, The San Marcoa ltarpiece,S an Marco,
Florence. MarburgI ndex/ Art Resource.
6) Sandro Botticelli,< <Madonnaan d Childw ith Saints.J ohn the
Evangelist and John the Baptist,,, Berlin-DahlemS, taatliche
Museen, Gemaldegalerie( the BardiA ltarpiece).M arburgI ndex
/ Art Resource.
Such fragmentatioonf the art of paintingm ightw ell seem scan-
dalous to Botticelli'cso ntemporariefso, r whomA lbertwi as a heroic
exponento f Tuscanc ulturea nd an ornamente, ven posthumousloyf,
the Laurentinceo urt.3T2 he explicitm ontageo f distinctr epresenta-
tionalc onventionsw as not, however,w ithoutp recedent,e specially 1490s);35B otticini'sp aintinga domeda chapeli n the churcho f the
in an explicitleyu charisticco ntext.F raA ngelicoh ad combinedw ith- Hieronymithee rmitsi n Fiesole.C learlyt,h e formaot f an imagei nset
in a single imagea n older,h ieratimc odeo f paintingin, a fictivei nsert withina stylisticallcyo ntrastinlga rgeri mage was at very least con-
with a specificallye ucharisticr eference,a nd the new illusionistic genial to dynamic reformist currents within fifteenth-century
manner[ Fig. 5]; Botticellhi imselfh ad done the same in his Bardi Florentiner eligiousl ife.
altarpieceo f 1475 [Fig.6 ].33R eal inserts,i .e., inset paintings(o cca- The rejectiono f Albertianp erspectivei n Botticelli'sr eligious
sionallyr eliefs culpturesm) arkedo ff by conspicuousfr amesp roject- paintingso f the early 1490s was surely not, or at least not only,
ing into the thirdd imension,a lso occurredi n Florentinfei fteenth- a mattero f aestheticp referenceO. n one level,t he contrastb etween
centurya rt,a s in a remarkablael tarpieceb y FrancescoB otticinoi f Botticelli'vs arianmt odes of paintingin this periodm ay have involved
c.1470 whichw ille ntert he discussionb elow[ Fig.7 ].34B otht he Fra a distinctiono f genre, separatingi mages for publicc onsumption
Angelicoa nd the Botticinail tarpiecews ere paintedf or reformedco n- fromt hose intendedf or initiateso nly,a distinctionth at woulds oon
gregationsF: raA ngelicoe xecutedt he formeru, ndert he aegis of St. be dissolvedi n the Florenceo f Savonarola.3A6 m ore profoundco n-
Antoninuhs imself,f or the high altaro f S. Marco( thus it may well cem was the issue of the appropriatvee hiclef or the representation
have exerted influence in the later quattrocenton, ot least on of sacred narrativeR. ejectingth e pictoriasli gn that throughi llusion-
Botticellwi,h ose own altarpiecien S. Marcoc an be datedt o the early ism dissemblesi ts own status as sign, Botticeldlie velopeda mode
14
THE ALTARA ND THE CITY:B OTTICELLI'"SM ANNERISMA"N D THE REFORMO F SACREDA RT
or--, y
.
9wrwrI mrlo
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r ZoI 1,- 1I
ow:(cid:127)
~i???
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~i"
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:C ?L_:IT ?.~Ils, I:" ; r?? ;Y; 'Ile-
-(cid:127) . . :-;-j (cid:127) --- (cid:127) - . . . .. ... ?;~it
~:(cid:127).
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M~:/ III Oi ~~Io ~1 ,1,1 1 1 1
T WO p M
7) Francesco Botticini,( (St.J erome in the Desert Adored by St. Eusebius and Pope Damasus, and by Saints Paula and
Eustochium,,.N ationalG allery,L ondon. MarburgI ndexI Art Resource.
15
CHARLESB URROUGHS
of paintingth at closes off the effect of distance,i .e., of spatiali llu-
sion, but heightenst he dramao f the narrativbey projectinigt forward
as if intot he beholder'ssp ace, thought he fictivitoyf the imagei s not
in question.37I n the concise formulationo f Regina Stefaniak,
Botticellai nticipatedth e turn from the naturalt o the conventional
sign in sixteenth-centuriy.e, ., "manneristv,"is ualc ulture.38
It willb ecome clear that two distinctk indso f motivatiounn der-
lay the radicali nnovationisn the Lamentationo:n e associatedw ith
theologicasl cruplesa bout the culticu se of imageryt,h e otherw ith
the consequenceso f artisticd ecisionsr elatedt o the satisfactiono f
particulaerx pressivea nd representationcaol ncerns,i n partt hrough
the use and even citationo f prestigiouosl derm odelsa nd examples
of imagem akingT. hese motivationdsi d not, I believe,o peratei nde-
pendentlyo f each other;n everthelessi,t is alwaysd ifficultto specify
the connectionsb etweent he study and the workshopa nd the dis-
courses propert o each, even in the case of so intellectuaal p ainter
as Botticellai,n d the problemis compoundedin the face of a work
that at firsts ight seems to rejectc entralc ontemporariyn tellectual
trends( as we wills ee, this cannotb e maintainedT).h e followingd is-
cussionw ills eek to shed lighto n the naturea nd interrelationshofip
these motivationas nd theirs ignificancefo r the elucidationo f both
unique and emblematic or symptomatica spects of Botticelli's
Lamentation.
2. The Question of the Image in Theology and Iconography
The fundamentails sue concerns the type of image deemed
adequatea nd appropriatfeo r sacred contexts.T he long historyo f
8) MichelangeloB uonarroti,< <Pieth,S,,t . Peter's Basilica,
debates and, on occasion,v iolentc onflictsa bouts acredi mages and
Vatican.M arburgI ndex/ Art Resource.
their place in worshiph ave been the subjecto f extensive recent
scholarshipB. ut in his importanbto oko n the controversayb outi dol-
atryf romt he late middlea ges to the CounterR eformatioGn,i useppe
Scavizzid eclares himselfp uzzledb y the reemergencei n 1489 of
a concernw itht he problemo f idolatryin Pico della Mirandola9's0 0 marksa dramaticr eversalo f the typicalf ormato f paintingsw ith
theses, writteni n a Florencew here in daily practice,a s Richard insets, in whicha larger,p erspectivallmy ore sophisticatedi,m age
Trexlere specially has argued, people showed no scruple about envelopesa n icon or icon-likeim age:i nstead,S t. Jeromea ppearsi n
locatingt he sacred withins pecific images, as long as the latter an expansivel andscape,w hilet he figuresi n the largeri mage form
provede fficaciouso, r aboute xpressingd isrespecto r even commit- a hieraticf rieze with littlei ndicationo f setting.40B y means of this
ting moreo r less vehementf ormso f iconoclasmto wardt hem if their cunning iconographicin novationB, otticini'ps aintingw, hich other-
powerf ailed.39 wise shows evidenceo f scholarlyd eliberationp,r esentsS t. Jerome
The evidence of the images indicates,h owevert, hata degree as a prototypicailc onodule.4I1n the unfortunataeb sence of textual
of concerna boutt he statuso f holy imagesw as crystallizeidn picto- evidence, the visual evidence suggests a sophisticated,p erhaps
rial iconographyif, not in the survivintge xtualr ecord.S uch concemrn defensive,a warenesso f the broadlyt heologicailm plicationosf dis-
informst he inset image, noted above, in Botticini'Fs iesolana ltar- tinct modes of representation.42
piece;h ere the groupeds aints and kneelingd onorp airo f the larger In Botticelli'Ls amentationt,h oughn ot explicitlayn inset picture,
image reverea emphaticallfyr amedi nset image of St. Jerome,w ho two forms of insertiona re evident.O n the one hand, the central
in tumrknn eelsb eforea furtherim age,t he crucifixi,. e., not a symbol- groupo f figuresw hose presencei s warrantebdy scripturaer e clear-
ic cross, but a representatioonf the martyredC hrist[ Fig. 7]. This ly distincftr omt he threec horics aints,w ho includeS t. Jerome.M ore
16
THEA LTARA NDT HEC ITYB: OTTICELL"I'MS ANNERISAMN"D T HER EFORMO F SACREDA RT
remarkablyt,h e treatmenot f Christa, s Rousseauh as emphasized, catastrophep roliferated.T44h e rhetorica nd reformso f Savonarola,
sets Hima part,n ot onlyf romt he attendansta ints,b ut also fromt he in particularh,a d profoundim plicationfos r every domaino f civic life
grief-frenziefdig ureso f the innerg roup:C hrist'sp ose derivesf rom and sensibilityit; is not surprisintgh att he assessmento f the impact
a classicalm odel,w hilet he modelingo f the nakedf lesh distinguish- of the Savonarolanm ovemento n artisticp roductionh as been
es Himf romt he mores tylizedt reatmenotf the otherf iguresi n their a perenniails sue in the studyo f late fifteenth-centuFrylo rentinaer t,
voluminousd raperies.4I3n this sense, therefored, istincti diomsc o- not least that of Botticellwi, ho at one time appearedt o scholarsa s
exist withint he paintingi,n a contrastt hat resists explanations,a y, an exemplaryp iagnonea rtist.4T5 he evidencew as primaf aciec om-
throught he attributioonf parts of the workt o assistants.I n other pelling:B otticelli'fse rvente spousal of the Savonarolanca use was
words,t he fragmentatioonf the "Arot f Paintingw"h ichw e saw man- emphaticallays serted by Vasariw, ho associatedi t witha declinei n
ifested in the contrastb etween contemporarwy orks belongingt o his art, while Savonarolansu bjectm atteri s prominenitn certaino f
distinctg enres here reaches as far as the internaflo rmale conomy the artist'sl ate pictures.46
of a particulairm age. Botticellai ppears as heir to the concerns Vasari'sa llegationof a decline in Botticelli'asr ti n his latery ears
expressedi n the St. Jeromea ltarpiecet,h oughf or himt hey require is contradictedh, owever,b y evidence for often highlyi mpressive
not merelyi ngenuityin the almostc ollage-likea ssemblyo f a com- artistica ctivityc ontinuinign the last decade of the fifteenthc entury
plex image but a profoundr ethinkingo f the painter's,o r rather and the earlyy ears of the sixteenth.4I7n deed,B otticeldlii d not even
image-maker'st,a sk in a culturacl ontexti n which Pico and others bothert o matriculatien the artistsg'u ildu ntil1 502. Nord id Botticelli
were revisitintgh e old debates abouti mage worship. sufferi n the aftermatohf Savonarola'fsa llo r takes teps, as his broth-
We can now begin to appreciatet he radicalc haractero f er did,t o evade anticipaterde tributioonn the parto f the friar'se ne-
Botticelli'Ls amentationb, othi n termso f its internaflo rmael conomy mies, one of whom,a leadingf igurei n the bitterlya nti-S avonarolan
and in termso f a contrast,e videntt o any contemporarrye asonably Compagnacci,h ad been in the habit of frequentingth e artist's
informeda bouto r sensitivet o developmentisn image makingw, ith house.48V asari'sa ssertionsc an be explaineda wayt hroughth e like-
the formallvye ryd ifferenti,f equallyi ntense,s ecularp aintingos f the lihoodt hat he confusedS androa nd his brotherS, imone Filipepi,
same period,n otablyt he CalumnyT. he paintingm arksa nd mani- also an artista nd an avoweds upporteor f Savonarolaa, nd created
fests old doubts about the place of images in worshipw hile also a compositep ersonagef romt he two men.
questioningn ew, indeed prototypicallmy odern,m odes of picture There are two extant explicitlyS avonarolanp aintings by
makingI. t is not new to see the Lamentatioann d relatedw orksa s Botticellit,h e MysticN ativityin Londona nd the Crucifixioinn the
symptomatiacn d/ore xpressiveo f crisis in the politicaol r economic Fogg Museum,H arvardU niversityT.h e formerc ommemoratetsh e
realms, and of associated attitudinaal nd even epistemological martyrdomas, it seemed to the piagnoni,o f Savonarolaan d his two
shifts;m ore importanat,s we have seen, is the painting'rs eflexive fellow sufferers,a nd can be dated to 1500 Florentinset yle (i.e.,
registratioonf a crisis in the protocolso f image making.S uch dis- March1 500-March1 501);t he latters eems to have been produced
paratep henomenam ay well warrandt ifferenta nalyticasl trategies, duringt he friar'sl ifetime,b ut hardlyb efore 1497.49E ven on the
but - in linew ithH auser'si ntuitio-n a bridginmg otifi s at handi n assumptionth att he imageryo f these paintinges xpressedt he artist's
the discussiont,o whichI now turn,o f the late fifteenth-centurreyd is- own convictionsit, is quitel ikelyt hat he was caughtu p in the great
covery of ancient philosophicaslk epticisma nd its implicationfso r groundswelol f piagnonee nthusiasmt hat followedt he friar'sd eath
Botticelli'sc ulturaml ilieu,n ot least in relationto the productioonf and, mergingw ith republicanp atriotismp, layed a crucialr ole in
images. Florentinpeu blico piniona nd politicahl istoryu ntilt he fall of the last
republicin 1530.50
Iconography,n ot style, distinguishest he two indisputably
3. Crisis Imagery:I mage in Crisis Savonarolan paintings by Botticelli.I n earlier scholarship we
encounterf requenta ttemptst o connectt he MunichL amentatioonr
The crisisi n Florentinaef fairsa nd attitudeisn the 1490s is eas- the Milan witht he Savonarolamn ovementb; otha re markedb y
Pieta
ily outlinedb y referencet o certain majore vents: the death of a coincidenceo f particulaarr tistica nd religiousc oncerns,t hough
Lorenzod e' Mediciin April1 492; the threato f Frenchi nvasiont hat nothing in their iconographyd emonstrates,o r even suggests,
materializeidn 1494; the expulsiono f Pierod e' Mediciin the fall of a Savonarolanco nnectionI. ndeed,C laudiaR ousseauh as notedt he
that year and the subsequente stablishmenotf a republicanr egime derivatioonf the Christin the Lamentatiofnr oma figureo f the dead
dominatedb y Savonarolaa nd his supporterst;h e fall of Savonarola or dyingM eleagero n a Romans arcophagu(ss he wouldg o so far as
in 1498. Such events were sufficienbt y themselvest o create wide- to see thisa s a quotationo f the classicals ource in Botticelli'psa int-
spread anxiety,b utt heiri mpactw as augmentedb y a boomi n apoc- ing);51s uch a mixtureo f pagan and Christianm ateriarl an directly
alypticp reachinga s the half-millenniuampp roacheda nd portentso f counter to Savonarola's stricturesa nd anyway, as Rousseau
17