THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY AND PRACTICE OF AN EGYPTIAN LATE ANTIQUE ...

365 Pages·2013·41.25 MB·English

THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY AND PRACTICE OF AN EGYPTIAN LATE ANTIQUE MONASTERY:
AN ARCHAEOBOTANICAL CASE STUDY
Thesis submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
at the University of Leicester
by
Katharine Wendy McLaughlin Smith M.Sc. (Sheffield)
School of Archaeological Studies
University of Leicester
October 1997
UMI Number: U105210
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Abstract
This thesis explores the extent to which archaeobotany can contribute to the largely historically-based
discussion of the role monasteries played in the Late Antique (4th - 7th centuries AD) agricultural economy
in Egypt. The archaeobotanical assemblage collected from the excavations of a Late Antique monastery at
Kom el-Nana, Middle Egypt (AD 400 - 750) is used for this purpose.
The methodology employed in the field, laboratory and statistical analysis of this assemblage follows that
already established in northern Europe. The possible uses of the economic and weed / wild plants recovered
are fully discussed. By-products of crop processing or food production are abundant in these samples,
suggesting that they are also of economic value at this site, most likely as fodder, fuel or temper. This result
was confirmed by a study of the weed / wild taxa which showed that samples had evidence for a low
harvesting height, indicating the intentional collection of plant stalks during harvests. A wide range of
economic plants, including many condiments, were recovered at Kom el-Nana suggesting a more varied
monastic diet than indicated by historical records.
The use of multivariate statistical analysis establishes that although there may be some post-deposition
contamination (i.e. abandonment debris, decaying mudbrick, etc.) these are not major contributing factors to
the formation of these deposits.
The differences or similarities between carbonized and desiccated components of the Kom el-Nana
assemblage are explored. Oven samples are the primary source of carbonized remains on site and many of
the taxa identified in the desiccated component, especially fruit and condiments, are not recovered in the
carbonized component.
In Late Antique Egypt cereal chaff is documented as a traded agricultural good and, therefore, it is argued
that the use of cereal producer / consumer models is inappropriate in the Late Antique Egyptian context.
Historical evidence is used to explain the absence of cereal grain and pulses from the Kom el-Nana
assemblage. The archaeobotanical data from the Kom el-Nana oven samples indicate how different
traditional fuels (i.e. crop processing by-products and animal dung) were used as fuel. These results
demonstrate that integrating archaeobotanical and historical evidence is a successful method to address
issues on agricultural economy and practice in this or any other historical period.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT i
TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
LIST OF FIGURES vi
LIST OF PLATES viii
LIST OF TABLES xii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xiv
GUIDANCE NOTES xv
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD FOR EGYPT IN THE PERIOD 332 BC - AD 642 2
1.2 AIMS AND ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY 4
1.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 5
CHAPTER 2. THE WIDER HISTORICAL SETTING 8
2.1 LATE ANTIQUITY 8
2.2 LATE ANTIQUE TRANSITIONS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN 9
2.2.1 The emergence of new powers 9
2.2.2 The emergence of a new kind of city 10
2.2.3 The rural landscape 11
2.2.4 The Late Antique economy 13
2.3 EGYPTIAN LATE ANTIQUITY 14
2.3.1 Romano-Byzantine rule in Egypt 14
2.3.2 Historical background of land ownership in Egypt 15
2.4 AGRICULTURAL HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENTS IN LATE ANTIQUE EGYPT 16
2.4.1 Historical change in crop husbandry regimes 17
2.4.2 Evidence for traditional and new crops 18
2.5 MONASTIC EGYPT 20
2.5.1 Anchorite, laurite and coenobite communities 21
2.5.2 Monastic agriculture and diet 22
2.6 HISTORICAL EVIDENCE FOR LANDED MONASTIC ESTATES 23
2.6.1 Founding and funding monastic institutions 23
2.6.2 Self-sufficiency 26
2.6.3 Egyptian monastic ‘estates ’ and precedence 28
2.7 SUMMARY 28
CHAPTER 3. ARCHAEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND 29
3.1 THE HERMOPOLITE SETTING 29
3.1.1 The papyrological recordfor settlement 29
3.1.2 The archaeological recordfor cities and villages 31
3.2 THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD FOR MONASTERIES IN EGYPT 35
3.2.1 Hermopolite monastic settlements 35
3.2.2 Other Egyptian monastic settlements 36
3.2.3 Difficulty of recognition of monastic institutions in the archaeological record 41
3.3 HISTORICAL EVIDENCE AT KOM EL-NANA 41
3.4 SITE DESCRIPTION OF KOM EL-NANA 42
3.5 PROVISIONAL NATURE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA FROM KOM EL-NANA 45
3.6 PRESERVATION 46
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 3. continued...
3.7 DEFINITION OF CONTEXTS SAMPLED 46
3.7.1 Frequently occurring contexts 46
3.7.2 Infrequently occurring contexts 49
3.7.3 Identified versus understood contexts 49
3.8 DATING EVIDENCE 50
3.9 SUMMARY 51
CHAPTER 4. ARCHAEOBOTANICAL METHODOLOGY 52
4.1 SAMPLING STRATEGY 52
4.1.1 Sampling at Kom el-Nana - the development of a strategy 52
4.1.2 Sampling strategies 52
4.2 SAMPLING AT KOM EL-NANA 53
4.2.1 Sample collection at Kom el-Nana 54
4.2.2 Sample selection at Kom el-Nana 55
4.3 SAMPLE RECORDING 55
4.4 SAMPLE FLOTATION 57
4.5 SUB-SAMPLING 57
4.6 QUANTIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION METHOD 58
4.7 DIFFERENTIAL PRESERVATION 61
4.7.1 Treatment ofKom el-Nana’s differentially preserved plant remains 62
4.8 HEAVY RESIDUES 63
4.9 USE OF MODERN ANALOGUES 66
4.9.1 The modem physical setting as analogue 67
4.10 DATA ENTRY 70
4.11 SUMMARY 71
CHAPTER 5. PLANTS OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE AT KOM EL-NANA 72
5.1 THE OVERALL ASSEMBLAGE 72
5.2 ECONOMIC PLANTS 74
5.2.1 Cereal grain and chaff 75
5.2.2 Pulses 76
5.2.3 Oil crops 76
5.2.4 Fruit 77
5.2.5 Condiments 79
5.2.6 Other economic plants 80
5.3 WEED / WILD PLANTS 82
5.3.1 Weed / wild plants of possible economic importance 82
5.4 MEDICINAL PLANTS 83
5.5 COMPARING THE KOM EL-NANA ECONOMIC PLANTS WITH OTHER EGYPTIAN SITES 85
5.6 CONCLUSIONS 92
CHAPTER 6. EVIDENCE FOR AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE AT KOM EL-NANA 93
6.1 PRODUCER OR CONSUMER? 93
6.2 THE ECONOMIC PLANTS AND THE AGRICULTURAL SETTING 95
6.3 WEED ECOLOGY AND THE AGRICULTURAL SETTING 97
6.3.1 Weed ecology and habitat(s) 98
6.3.2 Weed ecology and seasonality 100
6.3.3 Weed ecology and the region(s) of crop production 100
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 6. continued...
6.4 HARVESTING HEIGHT 103
6.5 CROP PROCESSING 106
6.5.1 Evidence for flax / linseed processing 106
6.5.2 Evidence for sajflower processing 107
6.5.3 Cereal processing 108
6.6 CONCLUSIONS 113
CHAPTER 7. DATA PATTERNS, DOMINANCE, AND CROSS-CONTAMINATION 114
7.1 RELATIVE CONTRIBUTION OF PLANT CATEGORIES BY CONTEXT 114
7.1.1 The alley samples 114
7.1.2 The animal stall sample 115
7.1.3 The drain sample 115
7.1.4 The floor samples 116
7.1.5 The hearth / oven samples 117
7.1.6 The midden samples 119
7.1.7 The mudbrick samples 121
7.1.8 The pit sample 122
7.1.9 The pot slot samples 123
7.1.10 The mudbrick rubble sample 124
7.1.11 The squatter camp sample 124
7.1.12 The trough samples 125
7.1.13 Significance of patterning by context and sample 126
7.2 ABSOLUTE COUNT AND DIVERSITY 126
7.3 DOMINANCE 128
7.4 ORDINATION OF THE KOM EL-NANA DATA SET 128
7.4.1 Pattern searching and ordination 131
7.4.2 Data preparation for multivariate statistical analysis 131
7.4.3 Manipulation of data during multivariate analyses 134
7.4.4 Correspondence analysis (CA) versus detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) 135
7.4.5 Patterns in the DCA ordination diagram of the Kom el-Nana archaeobotanical assemblage 140
7.4.6 Summary of the results of the detrended correspondence analysis 145
7.5 CONCLUSIONS 146
CHAPTER 8. OBSERVATIONS ON DIFFERENTIAL PRESERVATION 147
8.1 COMPARISON OF THE RELATIVE PROPORTION OF PLANT REMAIN CATEGORIES 147
8.2 COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUAL CARBONIZED AND DESICCATED TAXA 148
8.3 CONTEXT AND THE CARBONIZED ASSEMBLAGE 156
8.4 CARBONIZED VS. DESICCATED: THE OVEN SAMPLES 157
8.4.1 Relative proportion of carbonized and desiccated plant remains 158
8.4.2 Comparison of the presence of individual taxa in the carbonized and desiccated component 160
8.4.3 Reconstruction of cereal processing based on the carbonized and desiccated remains 162
8.5 CONCLUSIONS 164
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRATING HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOBOTANICAL DATA 166
9.1 INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENTAL, ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL DATA 166
9.1.1 The need for integration 167
9.1.2. Examples of previous work 167
9.2 MONASTIC DIET 169
9.2.1 Comparison of historical and archaeobotanical evidence for agricultural crops at monasteries 170
9.2.2 Conclusions on archaeobotanical and historical evidence for agricultural crops at monasteries 172
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 9. continued...
9.3 THE ABSENCE OF CEREAL GRAIN AND PULSES AT KOM EL-NANA 174
9.3.1 Regulation of cereals in Late Antiquity 175
9.3.2 Ethnographic and archaeobotanical evidence for processing ofpulses prior to consumption 177
9.3.3 Historical and archaeobotanical evidence for processed cereals 177
93 A A significant absence? 179
9.4 EVIDENCE FOR THE USE OF TRADITIONAL FUELS AT KOM EL-NANA 179
9.4.1 The Kom el-Nana oven samples 180
9.4.2 Contents of the Kom el-Nana oven samples 180
9.4.3 Potential sources of fuel at Kom el-Nana 183
9.4.4 Social significance of fuel selection at Kom el-Nana 184
9.5 CROP PROCESSING BY-PRODUCTS AT KOM EL-NANA 184
9.6 CONCLUSIONS 187
CHAPTER 10. CONCLUSIONS 189
10.1 FUTURE RESEARCH 192
APPENDIX 1. LIST OF TAXA IN THE KOM EL-NANA SAMPLES 194
APPENDIX 2. PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORD OF IDENTIFICATIONS 249
2.1 CEREAL GRAIN 249
2.2 CEREAL CHAFF 252
2.3 PULSES 258
2.4 OIL CROPS 260
2.5 FRUITS 262
2.6 CONDIMENTS 271
2.7 OTHER ECONOMIC PLANTS 275
2.8 WEED / WILD PLANTS 278
2.9 UNIDENTIFIED 311
APPENDIX 3. NEW IDENTIFICATION CRITERIA 329
3.1 IDENTIFICATION CRITERIA FOR THE INTERNAL MEMBRANE OF FLAX / LINSEED CAPSULES 330
3.1.1 The use and structure of Linum usitatissimum L. 330
3.1.2 Identification criteria for Linum usitatissimum L. 331
3.1.3 The identification criteria to distinguish Linum usitatissimum L.from Raphanus raphanistrum L. 331
3.2 IDENTIFICATION CRITERIA FOR THE GALLS OF SYCOMORE FIG 333
3.2.1 The use and structure of Ficus sycomorus L. 333
3.2.2 The identification of Ficus sycomorus L. gall. 334
3.3 CONCLUSION 335
BIBLIOGRAPHY 343
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List of Figures
Chapter 3. Archaeological Background
Figure 3.1 Boundaries of the Hermopolite nome 30
Figure 3.2 Graeco-Roman and Late Antique sites in the Am am a area 34
Figure 3.3 Plan of the monastery of Apollo at Bawit 37
Figure 3.4 Plan of the monastery of Apa Jeremias at Saqqara 39
Figure 3.5 Plan of the monastery of Epiphanius in Western Thebes 40
Figure 3.6 Map showing the relation of Kom el-Nana to Tell el-Amama. 43
Figure 3.7 Plan of the Late Antique remains at Kom el-Nana 44
Chapter 4. Archaeobotanical Methodology
Figure 4.1 Archaeobotanical sampling sheet 56
Figure 4.2 Map ofAfrica showing the full extent of the Nile watershed and the location of Egypt 68
Figure 4.3 Phytogeographic zones of Egypt 69
Chapter 5. Plants of Economic Importance at Kom el-Nana
Figure 5.1 Summary of the Kom el-Nana archaeobotanical assemblage 74
Figure 5.2 Proportion of common fig (Ficus carica L.) and other fruits in the
Kom el-Nana assemblage 78
Figure 5.3 Location map of sites dating between 332 BC and AD 1000 where archaeobotanical
research has taken place in Egypt 90
Chapter 6. Evidence for Agricultural Practice at Kom el-Nana
Figure 6.1 The height range for those desiccated weed /wild plants identified to species level 105
Figure 6.2 Basic crop processing sequence for cereals 108
Figure 6.3 Relative proportion of desiccatedfree threshing wheat grain to
free threshing wheat rachis internodes 109
Figure 6.4 The relative proportion of desiccated barley grain to barley rachis internodes 110
Figure 6.5 Proportion of desiccated cereal culm nodes out of all cereal chaff identifications in
the Kom el-Nana samples 111
Figure 6.6 Relative proportion of desiccated cereal chaff elements in pit sample (94-043) 112
Chapter 7. Data Patterns, Dominance, and Cross-Contamination
Figure 7.1 Proportion ofplant categories in the desiccated component of the alley samples 114
Figure 7.2 Proportion ofplant categories in the desiccated component of the animal stall sample 115
Figure 7.3 Proportion of plant categories in the desiccated component of the drain sample 115
Figure 7.4 Proportion ofplant categories in the desiccated component of the floor samples 116
Figure 7.5 Proportion ofplant categories in the carbonized component of the floor samples 117
Figure 7.6 Proportion ofplant categories in the desiccated component of the hearth / oven samples 118
Figure 7.7 Proportion ofplant categories in the carbonized component of the hearth/oven samples 119
Figure 7.8 Proportion ofplant categories in the desiccated component of the midden samples 120
Figure 7.9 Proportion of plant categories in the carbonized component of the midden samples 121
Figure 7.10 Proportion ofplant categories in the desiccated component of the mudbrick samples 121
List of Figures
Chapter 7. Continued...
Figure 7.11 Proportion ofplant categories in the desiccated component of the pit sample 122
Figure 7.12 Proportion ofplant categories in the desiccated component of the pot slot samples 123
Figure 7.13 Proportion of plant categories in both components of the mudbrick rubble sample 124
Figure 7.14 Proportion of plant categories in the desiccated component of the
squatter camp sample 124
Figure 7.15 Proportion ofplant categories in the desiccated component of the trough samples 125
Figure 7.16 Rank order curve of desiccated taxa arranged in descending order by absolute count 127
Figure 7.17 Rank order curve of the carbonized taxa arranged in descending order by
absolute count 127
Figure 7.18 CA ordination diagram of the Kom el-Nana data, with all outliers removed 138
Figure 7.19 DCA ordination diagram on the Kom el-Nana data, with all outliers removed 139
Figure 7.20 DCA ordination diagram, with all outliers removed and without sample labels 141
Figure 7.21 DCA ordination diagram showing relative proportion of common fig (Ficus carica L.) 142
Figure 7.22 DCA ordination diagram showing relative proportion of purslane
(Portulaca oleracea L.) 143
Figure 7.23 DCA ordination diagram showing relative proportion of cereal culm nodes and
wheat and barley rachis internodes 144
Chapter 8. Observations on Differential Preservation
Figure 8.1 Relative proportion of plant remain categories in the carbonized and desiccated
component of the Kom el-Nana assemblage 148
Figure 8.2 Summary of the proportion of carbonized and desiccated identifications made for
each taxa 151
Figure 8.3 Presence of carbonized and desiccated taxa in Kom el-Nana samples 154
Figure 8.4 Relative proportion of carbonized and desiccated remains recovered in each sample 156
Figure 8.5 Summary of the proportion of carbonized and desiccated identifications for each
taxa found in the oven samples 159
Figure 8.6 Presence of carbonized and desiccated taxa in the Kom el-Nana oven samples 160
Figure 8.7 A comparison of carbonized and desiccated remains offree threshing wheat in the
Kom el-Nana oven samples 162
Figure 8.8 A direct comparison of carbonized and desiccated remains of barley in the
Kom el-Nana oven sample 94-048 163
Chapter 9. Integrating Historical and Archaeobotanical Data
Figure 9.1 Carbonized component of the Kom el-Nana oven samples 182
Figure 9.2 Desiccated component of the Kom el-Nana oven samples 182
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