The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence

322 Pages·1999·0.63 MB·English

by  Ray Kurzweil

The Age of Spiritual Machines [039-035-5.0]
When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence

By: Ray Kurzweil

Synopsis:

How much do we humans enjoy our current status as the most intelligent
beings on earth? Enough to try to stop our own inventions from
surpassing us in smarts? If so, we'd better pull the plug right now,
because if Ray Kurzweil is right, we've only got until about 2020 before
computers outpace the human brain in computational power. Kurzweil,
artificial intelligence expert and author of [38]The Age of Intelligent
Machines, shows that technological evolution moves at an exponential
pace. Further, he asserts, in a sort of swirling postulate, time speeds
up as order increases, and vice versa. He calls this the "Law of Time
and Chaos," and it means that although entropy is slowing the stream of
time down for the universe overall, and thus vastly increasing the
amount of time between major events, in the eddy of technological
evolution the exact opposite is happening, and events will soon be
coming faster and more furiously. This means that we'd better figure out
how to deal with conscious machines as soon as possible--they'll soon
not only be able to beat us at chess, they'll likely demand civil
rights, and they may at last realize the very human dream of
immortality.

Viking Press Copyright 1999

ISBN 0-670-88217-8

A NOTE TO THE READER As a photon wends its way through an arrangement of
glass panes and mirrors, its path remains ambiguous. It essentially
takes every possible path available to it (apparently these photons have
not read Robert Frost's poem "The Road Not Taken"). This ambiguity
remains until observation by a conscious observer forces the particle to
decide which path it had taken. Then the uncertainty is resolved -
retroactively - and it is as if the selected path had been taken all
along.

Like these quantum particles, you - the reader - have choices to make in
your path through this book. You can read the chapters as I intended
them to be read, in sequential order. Or, after reading the Prologue,
you may decide that the future can't wait, and you wish to immediately
jump to the chapters in Part III on the twenty-first century (the table
of contents on the next pages offers a description of each chapter). You
may then make your way back to the earlier chapters that describe the
nature and origin of the trends and forces that will manifest themselves
in this coming century. Or, perhaps, your course will remain ambiguous
until the end. But when you come to the Epilogue, any remaining
ambiguity will be resolved, and it will be as if you had always intended
to read the book in the order that you selected.

CONTENTS

A NOTE TO THE READER ... V

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... XI

PROLOGUE: AN INEXORABLE EMERGENCE Before the next century is over, human
beings will no longer be the most intelligent or capable type of entity
on the planet. Actually, let me take that back. The truth of that last
statement depends on how we define human.

PART ONE: PROBING THE PAST

CHAPTER ONE: THE LAW OF TIME AND CHAOS ... 9

For the past forty years, in accordance with Moore's Law, the power of
transistor-based computing has been growing exponentially. But by the
year 2020, transistor features will be just a few atoms thick, and
Moore's Law will have run its course. What then? To answer this critical
question, we need to understand the exponential nature of time.

CHAPTER TWO: THE INTELLIGENCE OF EVOLUTION ... 40

Can an intelligence create another intelligence more intelligent than
itself? Are we more intelligent than the evolutionary process that
created us? In turn, will the intelligence that we are creating come to
exceed that of its creator?

CHAPTER THREE: OF MIND AND MACHINES ... 51

"I am lonely and bored, please keep me company." If your computer
displayed this message on its screen, would that convince you that it is
conscious and has feelings? Before you say no too quickly, we need to
consider how such a plaintive message originated.

CHAPTER FOUR: A NEW FORM OF INTELLIGENCE ON EARTH ... 66

Intelligence rapidly creates satisfying, sometimes surprising plans that
meet an array of constraints. Clearly, no simple formula can emulate
this most powerful of phenomena. Actually, that's wrong. All that is
needed to solve a surprisingly wide range of intelligent problems is
exactly this: simple methods combined with heavy doses of computation,
itself a simple process.

CHAPTER FIVE: CONTEXT AND KNOWLEDGE ... 89

It is sensible to remember today's insights for tomorrow's challenges.
It is not fruitful to rethink every problem that comes along. This is
particularly true for humans, due to the extremely slow speed of our
computing circuitry.

PART TWO: PREPARING THE PRESENT

CHAPTER SIX: BUILDING NEW BRAINS ... 101

Evolution has found a way around the computational limitations of neural
circuitry. Cleverly, it has created organisms who in turn invented a
computational technology a million times faster than carbon-based
neurons. Ultimately, the computing conducted on extremely slow mammalian
neural circuits will be ported to a far more versatile and speedier
electronic (and photonic) equivalent.

CHAPTER SEVEN: ... AND BODIES ... 133

A disembodied mind will quickly get depressed. So what kind of bodies
will we provide for our twenty-first-century machines?

Later on, the question will become: What sort of bodies will they
provide for themselves?
CHAPTER EIGHT: 1999 ... 157

If all the computers in 1960 stopped functioning, few people would have
noticed. Circa 1999 is another matter. Although computers still lack a
sense of humor, a gift for small talk, and other endearing qualities of
human thought, they are nonetheless mastering an increasingly diverse
array of tasks that previously required human intelligence.

PART THREE: TO FACE THE FUTURE

CHAPTER NINE: 2009 ... 189

It is now 2009. A $1,000 personal computer can perform about a trillion
calculations per second. Computers are imbedded in clothing and jewelry.
Most routine business transactions take place between a human and a
virtual personality. Translating telephones are commonly used. Human
musicians routinely jam with cybernetic musicians. The neo-Luddite
movement is growing.

CHAPTER TEN: 2019 ... 202

A $1,000 computing device is now approximately equal to the
computational ability of the human brain. Computers are now largely
invisible and are embedded everywhere. Three-dimensional virtual-reality
displays, embedded in glasses and contact lenses, provide the primary
interface for communication with other persons, the Web, and virtual
reality. Most interaction with computing is through gestures and two-way
natural-language spoken communication. Realistic all-encompassing
visual, auditory, and tactile environments enable people to do virtually
anything with anybody regardless of physical proximity. People are
beginning to have relationships with automated personalities as
companions, teachers, caretakers, and lovers.

CHAPTER ELEVEN: 2029 ... 220

A $1,000 unit of computation has the computing capacity of approximately
one thousand human brains. Direct neural pathways have been perfected
for high-bandwidth connection to the human brain. A range of neural
implants is becoming available to enhance visual and auditory perception
and interpretation, memory, and reasoning. Computers have read all
available humanand machine-generated literature and multimedia material.
There is growing discussion about the legal rights of computers and what
constitutes being human. Machines claim to be conscious and these claims
are largely accepted.

CHAPTER TWELVE: 2099

There is a strong trend toward a merger of human thinking with the world
of machine intelligence that the human species initially created. There
is no longer any clear distinction between humans and computers. Most
conscious entities do not have a permanent physical presence.
Machine-based intelligences derived from extended models of human
intelligence claim to be human. Most of these intelligences are not tied
to a specific computational processing unit. The number of
software-based humans vastly exceeds those still using native
neuron-cell-based computation. Even among those human intelligences
still using carbon-based neurons, there is ubiquitous use of
neural-implant technology that provides enormous augmentation of human
perceptual and cognitive abilities. Humans who do not utilize such
implants are unable to meaningfully participate in dialogues with those
who do. Life expectancy is no longer a viable term in relation to
intelligent beings.

EPILOGUE: THE REST OF THE UNIVERSE REVISITED ... 253

Intelligent beings consider the fate of the universe.

TIME LINE ... 261

HOW TO BUILD AN INTELLIGENT MACHINE IN THREE EASY PARADIGMS ... 287

GLOSSARY ... 298

NOTES ... 375

SUGGESTED READINGS ... 344

WEB LINKS ... 369

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to the many persons
who have provided inspiration, patience, ideas, criticism, insight, and
all manner of assistance for this project. In particular, I would like
to thank:
My wife, Sonya, for her loving patience through the twists and turns of
the creative process My mother for long engaging walks with me when I
was a child in the Woods of Queens (yes, there were forests in Queens,
New York, when I was growing up) and for her enthusiastic interest in
and early support for my not-always-fully-baked ideas My Viking editors,
Barbara Grossman and Dawn Drzal, for their insightful guidance and
editorial expertise and the dedicated team at Viking Penguin, including
Susan Petersen, publisher; Ivan Held and Paul Slovak, marketing
executives; John Jusino, copy editor; Betty Lew, designer; Jariya
Wanapun, editorial assistant, and Laura Ogar, indexer Jerry Bauer for
his patient photography David High for actually devising a spiritual
machine for the cover My literary agent, Loretta Barrett, for helping to
shape this project My wonderfully capable researchers, Wendy Dennis and
Nancy Mulford, for their dedicated and resourceful efforts, and Tom
Garfield for his valuable assistance Rose Russo and Robert Brun for
turning illustration ideas into beautiful visual presentations Aaron
Kleiner for his encouragement and support George Gilder for his
stimulating thoughts and insights Harry George, Don Gonson, Larry
Janowitch, Hannah Kurzweil, Rob Pressman, and Mickey Singer for engaging
and helpful discussions on these topics My readers: Peter Arnold,
Melanie Baker-Futorian, Loretta Barrett, Stephen Baum, Bryan Bergeron,
Mike Brown, Cheryl Cordima, Avi Coren, Wendy Dennis, Mark Dionne, Dawn
Drzal, Nicholas Fabijanic, Gil Fischman, Ozzie Frankell, Vicky Frankell,
Bob Frankston, Francis Ganong, Tom Garfield, Harry George, Audra
Gerhardt, George Gilder, Don Gonson, Martin Greenberger, Barbara
Grossman, Larry Janowitch, Aaron Kleiner, Jerry Kleiner, Allen Kurzweil,
Amy Kurzweil, Arielle Kurzweil, Edith Kurzweil, Ethan Kurzweil, Hannah
Kurzweil, Lenny Kurzweil, Missy Kurzweil, Nancy Kurzweil, Peter
Kurzweil, Rachel Kurzweil, Sonya Kurzweil, Jo Lernout, Jon Lieff, Elliot
Lobel, Cyrus Mehta, Nancy Mulford, Nicholas Mullendore, Rob Pressman,
Vlad Sejnoha, Mickey Singer, Mike Sokol, Kim Storey, and Barbara Tyrell
for their compliments and criticisms (the latter being the most helpful)
and many invaluable suggestions Finally, all the scientists, engineers,
entrepreneurs, and artists who are busy creating the age of spiritual
machines.

PROLOGUE:

AN INEXORABLE EMERGENCE The gambler had not expected to be here. But on
reflection, he thought he had shown some kindness in his time. And this
place was even more beautiful and satisfying than he had imagined.
Everywhere there were magnificent crystal chandeliers, the finest
handmade carpets, the most sumptuous foods, and, yes, the most beautiful
women, who seemed intrigued with their new heaven mate. He tried his
hand at roulette, and amazingly his number came up time after time. He
tried the gaming tables and his luck was nothing short of remarkable: He
won game after game. Indeed his winnings were causing quite a stir,
attracting much excitement from the attentive staff, and from the
beautiful women.

This continued day after day, week after week, with the gambler winning
every game, accumulating bigger and bigger earnings. Everything was
going his way. He just kept on winning. And week after week, month after
month, the gambler's streak of success remained unbreakable.

After a while, this started to get tedious. The gambler was getting
restless; the winning was starting to lose its meaning. Yet nothing
changed. He just kept on winning every game, until one day, the now
anguished gambler turned to the angel who seemed to be in charge and
said that he couldn't take it anymore. Heaven was not for him after all.
He had figured he was destined for the "other place" nonetheless, and
indeed that is where he wanted to be.

"But this is the other place," came the reply.

That is my recollection of an episode of The Twilight Zone that I saw as
a young child. I don't recall the title, but I would call it "Be Careful
What You Wish For." [1] As this engaging series was wont to do, it
illustrated one of the paradoxes of human nature: We like to solve
problems, but we don't want them all solved, not too quickly, anyway. We
are more attached to the problems than to the solutions.

Take death, for example. A great deal of our effort goes into avoiding
it. We make extraordinary efforts to delay it, and indeed often consider
its intrusion a tragic event. Yet we would find it hard to live without
it. Death gives meaning to our lives. It gives importance and value to
time. Time would become meaningless if there were too much of it. If
death were indefinitely put off, the human psyche would end up, well,
like the gambler in The Twilight Zone episode.

We do not yet have this predicament. We have no shortage today of either
death or human problems. Few observers feel that the twentieth century
has left us with too much of a good thing. There is growing prosperity,
fueled not incidentally by information technology, but the human species
is still challenged by issues and difficulties not altogether different
than those with which it has struggled from the beginning of its
recorded history.

The twenty-first century will be different. The human species, along
with the computational technology it created, will be able to solve
age-old problems of need, if not desire, and will be in a position to
change the nature of mortality in a post-biological future. Do we have
the psychological capacity for all the good things that await us?
Probably not. That, however, might change as well.

Before the next century is over, human beings will no longer be the most
intelligent or capable type of entity on the planet. Actually, let me
take that back. The truth of that last statement depends on how we
define human. And here we see one profound difference between these two
centuries: The primary political and philosophical issue of the next
century will be the definition of who we are. [2]

But I am getting ahead of myself. This last century has seen enormous
technological change and the social upheavals that go along with it,
which few pundits circa 1899 foresaw. The pace of change is accelerating
and has been since the inception of invention (as I will discuss in the
first chapter, this acceleration is an inherent feature of technology).
The result will be far greater transformations in the first two decades
of the twenty-first century than we saw in the entire twentieth century.
However, to appreciate the inexorable logic of where the twenty-first
century will bring us, we have to go back and start with the present.

TRANSITION TO THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY Computers today exceed human
intelligence in a broad variety of intelligent yet narrow domains such
as playing chess, diagnosing certain medical conditions, buying and
selling stocks, and guiding cruise missiles. Yet human intelligence
overall remains far more supple and flexible. Computers are still unable
to describe the objects on a crowded kitchen table, write a summary of a
movie, tie a pair of shoelaces, tell the difference between a dog and a
cat (although this feat, I believe, is becoming feasible today with
contemporary neural nets - computer simulations of human neurons), [3]
recognize humor, or perform other subtle tasks in which their human
creators excel.

One reason for this disparity in capabilities is that our most advanced
computers are still simpler than the human brain currently about a
million times simpler (give or take one or two orders of magnitude
depending on the assumptions used). But this disparity will not remain
the case as we go through the early part of the next century. Computers
doubled in speed every three years at the beginning of the twentieth
century, every two years in the 1950s and 1960s, and are now doubling in
speed every twelve months. This trend will continue, with computers
achieving the memory capacity and computing speed of the human brain by
around the year 2020.

Achieving the basic complexity and capacity of the human brain will not
automatically result in computers matching the flexibility of human
intelligence. The organization and content of these resources - the
software of intelligence - is equally important. One approach to
emulating the brain's software is through reverse engineering - scanning
a human brain (which will be achievable early in the next century) [4]
and essentially copying its neural circuitry in a neural computer (a
computer designed to simulate a massive number of human neurons) of
sufficient capacity.

There is a plethora of credible scenarios for achieving human-level
intelligence in a machine. We will be able to evolve and train a system
combining massively parallel neural nets with other paradigms to
understand language and model knowledge, including the ability to read
and understand written documents. Although the ability of today's
computers to extract and learn knowledge from natural-language documents
is quite limited, their abilities in this domain are improving rapidly.
Computers will be able to read on their own, understanding and modeling
what they have read, by the second decade of the twenty-first century.
We can then have our computers read all of the world's literature books,
magazines, scientific journals, and other available material.
Ultimately, the machines will gather knowledge on their own by venturing
into the physical world, drawing from the full spectrum of media and
information services, and sharing knowledge with each other (which
machines can do far more easily than their human creators).
Once a computer achieves a human level of intelligence, it will
necessarily roar past it. Since their inception, computers have
significantly exceeded human mental dexterity in their ability to
remember and process information. A computer can remember billions or
even trillions of facts perfectly while we are hard pressed to remember
a handful of phone numbers. A computer can quickly search a database
with billions of records in fractions of a second. Computers can readily
share their knowledge bases. The combination of human-level intelligence
in a machine with a computer's inherent superiority in the speed,
accuracy, and sharing ability of its memory will be formidable.

Mammalian neurons are marvelous creations, but we wouldn't build them
the same way. Much of their complexity is devoted to supporting their
own life processes, not to their information-handling abilities.
Furthermore, neurons are extremely slow; electronic circuits are at
least a million times faster. Once a computer achieves a human level of
ability in understanding abstract concepts, recognizing patterns, and
other attributes of human intelligence, it will be able to apply this
ability to a knowledge base of all human-acquired-and
machine-acquired-knowledge.

A common reaction to the proposition that computers will seriously
compete with human intelligence is to dismiss this specter based
primarily on an examination of contemporary capability. After all, when
I interact - with my personal computer, its intelligence seems limited
and brittle, if it appears intelligent at all. It is hard to imagine
one's personal computer having a sense of humor, holding an opinion, or
displaying any of the other endearing qualities of human thought.

But the state of the art in computer technology is anything but static.
Computer capabilities are emerging today that were considered impossible
one or two decades ago. Examples include the ability to transcribe
accurately normal continuous human speech, to understand and respond
intelligently to natural language, to recognize patterns in medical
procedures such as electrocardiograms and blood tests with an accuracy
rivaling that of human physicians, and, of course, to play chess at a
world-championship level. In the next decade, we will see translating
telephones that provide real-time speech translation from one human
language to another, intelligent computerized personal assistants that
can converse and rapidly search and understand the world's knowledge
bases, and a profusion of other machines with increasingly broad and
flexible intelligence.

In the second decade of the next century, it will become increasingly
difficult to draw any clear distinction between the capabilities of
human and machine intelligence. The advantages of computer intelligence
in terms of speed, accuracy, and capacity will be clear. The advantages
of human intelligence, on the other hand, will become increasingly
difficult to distinguish.

The skills of computer software are already better than many people
realize. It is frequently my experience that when demonstrating recent
advances in, say, speech or character recognition, observers are
surprised at the state of the art. For example, a typical computer
user's last experience with speech-recognition technology may have been
a low-end freely bundled piece of software from several years ago that
recognized a limited vocabulary, required pauses between words, and did
an incorrect job at that. These users are then surprised to see
contemporary systems that can recognize fully continuous speech on a
60,000-word vocabulary, with accuracy levels comparable to a human
typist.
Also keep in mind that the progression of computer intelligence will
sneak up on us. As just one example, consider Gary Kasparov's confidence
in 1990 that a computer would never come close to defeating him. After
all, he had played the best computers, and their chess-playing ability -
compared to his was pathetic. But computer chess playing made steady
progress, gaining forty-five rating points each year. In 1997, a
computer sailed past Kasparov, at least in chess. There has been a great
deal of commentary that other human endeavors are far more difficult to
emulate than chess playing. This is true. In many areas - the ability to
write a book on computers, for example computers are - still pathetic.
But as computers continue to gain in capacity at an exponential rate we
will have - the same experience in these other areas that Kasparov had
in chess. Over the next several decades, machine competence will rival -
and ultimately surpass any particular human skill one cares to cite,
including our marvelous ability to place our ideas in a broad diversity
of contexts.

Evolution has been seen as a billion-year drama that led inexorably to
its grandest creation: human intelligence. The emergence in the early
twenty-first century of a new form of intelligence on Earth that can
compete with, and ultimately significantly exceed, human intelligence
will be a development of greater import than any of the events that have
shaped human history. It will be no less important than the creation of
the intelligence that created it, and will have profound implications
for all aspects of human endeavor, including the nature of work, human
learning, government, warfare, the arts, and our concept of ourselves.

This specter is not yet here. But with the emergence of computers that
truly rival and exceed the human brain in complexity will come a
corresponding ability of machines to understand and respond to
abstractions and subtleties. Human beings appear to be complex in part
because of our competing internal goals. Values and emotions represent
goals that often conflict with each other, and are an unavoidable
by-product of the levels of abstraction that we deal with as human
beings. As computers achieve a comparable - and greater - level of
complexity, and as they are increasingly derived at least in part from
models of human intelligence, they, too, will necessarily utilize goals
with implicit values and emotions, although not necessarily the same
values and emotions that humans exhibit.

A variety of philosophical issues will emerge. Are computers thinking,
or are they just calculating? Conversely, are human beings thinking, or
are they just calculating? The human brain presumably follows the laws
of physics, so it must be a machine, albeit a very complex one. Is there
an inherent difference between human thinking and machine thinking? To
pose the question another way, once computers are as complex as the
human brain, and can match the human brain in subtlety and complexity of
thought, are we to consider them conscious? This is a difficult question
even to pose, and some philosophers believe it is not a meaningful
question; others believe it is the only meaningful question in
philosophy. This question actually goes back to Plato's time, but with
the emergence of machines that genuinely appear to possess volition and
emotion, the issue will become increasingly compelling.

For example, if a person scans his brain through a noninvasive scanning
technology of the twenty-first century (such as an advanced magnetic
resonance imaging), and downloads his mind to his personal computer, is
the "person" who emerges in the machine the same consciousness as the
person who was scanned?
That "person" may convincingly implore you that "he" grew up in
Brooklyn, went to college in Massachusetts, walked into a scanner here,
and woke up in the machine there. The original person who was scanned,
on the other hand, will acknowledge that the person in the machine does
indeed appear to share his history, knowledge, memory, and personality,
but is otherwise an impostor, a different person.

Even if we limit our discussion to computers that are not directly
derived from a particular human brain, they will increasingly appear to
have their own personalities, evidencing reactions that we can only
label as emotions and articulating their own goals and purposes. They
will appear to have their own free will. They will claim to have
spiritual experiences. And people - those still using carbon-based
neurons or otherwise will believe them.

One often reads predictions of the next several decades discussing a
variety of demographic, economic, and political trends that largely
ignore the revolutionary impact of machines with their own opinions and
agendas. Yet we need to reflect on the implications of the gradual, yet
inevitable, emergence of true competition to the full range of human
thought in order to comprehend the world that lies ahead.

PART ONE PROBING THE PAST

CHAPTER ONE THE LAW OF TIME AND CHAOS A (VERY BRIEF) HISTORY OF THE
UNIVERSE:

TIME SLOWING DOWN The universe is made of stories, not of atoms. -Muriel
Rukeyser Is the universe a great mechanism, a great computation, a great
symmetry, a great accident or a great thought?

-John D. Barrow

As we start at the beginning, we will notice an unusual attribute of the
nature of time, one that is critical to our passage to the twenty-first
century. Our story begins perhaps 15 billion years ago. No conscious
life existed to appreciate the birth of our Universe at the time, but we
appreciate it now, so retroactively it did happen. (In retrospect - from
one perspective of quantum mechanics - we could say that any Universe
that fails to evolve conscious life to apprehend its existence never
existed in the first place.)

It was not until 10 -43 seconds (a tenth of a millionth of a trillionth
of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second) after the birth of the
Universe [1] that the situation had cooled off sufficiently (to 100
million trillion trillion degrees) that a distinct force - gravity -
evolved.

Not much happened for another 10 -34 seconds (this is also a very tiny
fraction of a second, but it is a billion times longer than 10 - 43
seconds), at which point an even cooler Universe (now only a billion
billion billion degrees) allowed the emergence of matter in the form of
electrons and quarks. To keep things balanced, antimatter appeared as
well. It was an eventful time, as new forces evolved at a rapid rate. We
were now up to three: gravity, the strong force, [2] and the electroweak
force. [3]

After another 10-10 seconds (a tenth of a billionth of a second), the
electroweak force split into the electromagnetic and weak forces [4] we
know so well today.
Things got complicated after another 10 - 5 seconds (ten millionths of a
second). With the temperature now down to a relatively balmy trillion
degrees, the quarks came together to form protons and neutrons. The
antiquarks did the same, forming antiprotons.

Somehow, the matter particles achieved a slight edge. How this happened
is not entirely clear. Up until then, everything had seemed so, well,
even. But had everything stayed evenly balanced, it would have been a
rather boring Universe. For one thing, life never would have evolved,
and thus we could conclude that the Universe would never have existed in
the first place.

For every 10 billion antiprotons, the Universe contained 10 billion and
1 protons. The protons and antiprotons collided, causing the emergence
of another important phenomenon: light (photons). Thus, almost all of
the antimatter was destroyed, leaving matter as dominant. (This shows
you the danger of allowing a competitor to achieve even a slight
advantage.)

Of course, had antimatter won, its descendants would have called it
matter and would have called matter antimatter, so we would be back
where we started (perhaps that is what happened).

After another second (a second is a very long time compared to some of
the earlier chapters in the Universe's history, so notice how the time
frames are growing exponentially larger), the electrons and
antielectrons (called positrons) followed the lead of the protons and
antiprotons and similarly annihilated each other, leaving mostly the
electrons.

After another minute, the neutrons and protons began coalescing into
heavier nuclei, such as helium, lithium, and heavy forms of hydrogen.
The temperature was now only a billion degrees.

About 300,000 years later (things are slowing down now rather quickly),
with the average temperature now only 3,000 degrees, the first atoms
were created as the nuclei took control of nearby electrons.

After a billion years, these atoms formed large clouds that gradually
swirled into galaxies.

After another two billion years, the matter within the galaxies
coalesced further into distinct stars, many with their own solar
systems.

Three billion years later, circling an unexceptional star on the arm of
a common galaxy, an unremarkable planet we call the Earth was born.

Now before we go any further, let's notice a striking feature of the
passage of time. Events moved quickly at the beginning of the Universe's
history. We had three paradigm shifts in just the first billionth of a
second. Later on, events of cosmological significance took billions of
years. The nature of time is that it inherently moves in an exponential
fashion either geometrically gaining in speed, or, as in the history of
our Universe, geometrically slowing down. Time only seems to be linear
during those eons in which not much happens. Thus most of the time, the
linear passage of time is a reasonable approximation of its passage. But
that's not the inherent nature of time.

Why is this significant? It's not when you're stuck in the eons in which
not much happens. But it is of great significance when you find yourself