The Affordability of New Urbanism in Atlanta Master’s of City and Regional Planning Program, Georgia Institute of Technology Susan Prater 27 April 2011 Table of Contents SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW 3 SECTION 2: METHODOLOGY AND DATA 55 SECTION 3: SUMMARY OF RESULTS 26 SECTION 4: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 43 2 1. Introduction and Literature Review New Urbanism is a burgeoning development pattern in cities across the United States, including Atlanta. The purpose of this research is to determine to what extent New Urbanism has lived up to one of its key principles, that of providing a “range of housing choices to serve people of diverse income levels.”1 New Urbanism is a previously unseen opportunity for the creation of affordable housing. It provides an opportunity to rethink traditional development patterns, often by rewriting zoning and other restrictions that have resulted in economic segregation and an overall lack of housing sufficiently affordable for all income levels.2 By explicitly promoting diversity of both place and people New Urbanism provides a context in which small, affordable units can harmoniously juxtapose more expensive housing choices. This study will analyze developments in Metropolitan Atlanta, an area in which New Urbanism is becoming increasingly popular. The goal of this research is first to determine which New Urbanist developments have resulted in the greatest number of affordable units. This will be achieved through an examination of housing prices in several New Urbanist developments in comparison to both metropolitan area median incomes and to immediately surrounding housing prices. New Urbanism counters the common patterns of development since World War II and proposes a new pattern of development in its place. Historical precedents for New Urbanism can be found in the City Beautiful Movement as well as in the writings of Jane Jacobs. “New” Urbanism uses traditional urban forms from the United States and Europe as a model and promotes narrow, pedestrian‐oriented streets, accessible public space, small blocks and neighborhoods containing a mix of land uses.3 The benefits of this form of urbanism as defined by Jane Jacobs include greater public safety, aesthetic 1 Members of the Affordability Initiative, Congress for the New Urbanism. (2010). Affordable Housing in Walkable, Mixed-Use, Mixed-Income Neighborhoods: An Action Plan for Federal Policy Makers. A New Era in Affordable Housing: Investing for Impact for Sustainable Communities. Philadelphia, PA 2 Talen, Emily (2010). “Affordability in New Urbanist Development: Principle, Practice and Strategy.” Journal of Urban Affairs. 32(4): 489. 3 Congress for the New Urbanism (2001). Charter of the New Urbanism: 2. 3 interest, walkability, and an overall greater functionality and efficiency.4 New Urbanism borrows an emphasis on public space, a celebration of civic buildings, and a goal of beautification from the City Beautiful Movement. New Urbanism, howver, does not seek only physical revitalization. The Charter of the New Urbanism (created in direct rebuttal to manifesto of modernism, the Congress Internationale d’Architecture Moderne) states that physical, social, and environmental concerns are “one interrelated community‐building challenge.”5 Notable among these social goals is a commitment to provide “a range of housing choices to serve people of diverse ages and income levels.” Although not explicitly expressing a desire to create affordable housing, this statement implies that the ideal New Urbanist communities would be accessible to families and individuals at many income levels. Talen has argued that communities with a mix of incomes are stable and sustainable.6 In a mixed‐income community a person may increase or decrease his income yet not be forced to relocate to another neighborhood. Additionally neighborhood with a diverse range of incomes creates the potential for a greater range in ages meaning that grown children, parents and grandparents could live in the same neighborhood, rather than being segregated by their differing incomes.7 Society as a whole benefits from socially mixed neighborhoods.8 Economic segregation has resulted in “American Apartheid” in which residents of lower‐income neighborhoods experience negative externalities resulting from the effects of concentrated poverty and a disinvestment by the rest of society.9 This spatial segregation in turn causes a deterioration of the built environment in 4 Jacobs, Jane. (1993). The Life and Death of Great American Cities. New York, Random House. 5 Congress for the New Urbanism (2001). Charter of the New Urbanism: 2. 6 Talen, Emily. (2006). “Design That Enables Diversity: The Complications of a Planning Ideal.” Journal of Planning Literature 20 (3): 233‐249. 7 Talen, Emily. (2008). Affordable Housing in New Urbanism. CNU XVI, Austin, Texas 8 Talen, Emily. (2006). “Design That Enables Diversity: The Complications of a Planning Ideal.” Journal of Planning Literature 20 (3): 233‐249. 9 Talen, Emily. (2006). “Design That Enables Diversity: The Complications of a Planning Ideal.” Journal of Planning Literature 20 (3): 233‐249. 4 poorer areas and reinforces existing class and income divisions. Additionally lower‐income areas often do not provide adequate access to jobs. However, in a socially mixed neighborhood this inequity is resolved and lower‐income individuals benefit from the positive externality of neighbors which may provide professional networks for finding jobs as well as economic role models for children.10 These benefits may be thought to aid low‐income individuals at the expense of the rest of society, however when low‐income neighborhoods suffer the rest of society suffers as well through an increased need for public expenditures to aid those dependent on government programs. Additionally, “cross‐fertilization” between diverse economic and ethnic groups helps all by fostering creativity and innovation.11 Critics of the social goals of New Urbanism claim it promotes nostalgia for a small‐town America by “harking back to a mythological past.”12 Some have questioned the logic of the ideal of “community,” mixed‐income or otherwise. Harvey asserts that New Urbanists are presumptuous in their belief most Americans actually want to live in a “community.” He identifies well‐defined communities as usually exclusive rather than inclusive.13 Talen agrees with this point and provides evidence that many New Urbanist developments tend to attract a racially and economically homogenous population.14 Ironically this homogeneity is conducive to the building of community, though not in the way desired by most New Urbanists.15 New Urbanists generally favor the creation of communities due to public spaces conducive to casual interaction and a pedestrian‐oriented. Talen, however asserts that these factors of proximity and physical setting may be neutral to the creation of communities and physical settings 10 Joseph, Mark et al. (2007). “The Theoretical Basis for Addressing Poverty Through Mixed-Income Development.” Urban Affairs Review 42:369. 11 Joseph, Mark et al. (2007). “The Theoretical Basis for Addressing Poverty Through Mixed-Income Development.” Urban Affairs Review 42:369. 12 Harvey, D. (1997). "The New Urbanism and the Communitarian Trap: On Social Problems and the False Hope of Design." Harvard Design Magazine Winter/Spring(1): 3. 14 Talen, Emily. (1999). "Sense of Community and Neighborhood Form: An Assessment of the Social Doctrine of New Urbanism." Urban Studies 36(8): 18. 15 Talen, Emily. (1999). "Sense of Community and Neighborhood Form: An Assessment of the Social Doctrine of New Urbanism." Urban Studies 36(8): 18. 5 should not seek to do more than provide a backdrop against which community‐building may occur. New Urbanism is often accused of “physical determinism.” This is a belief that an improvement in physical settings will affect social and possibly even psychological changes in a neighborhood and its residents. The focus on revitalization, often resulting in gentrification and displacement, fuels this criticism. Andres Duany and others argue that gentrification is “usually good news” because capital is flowing into a depressed area.16 This “rising tide that lifts all boats” theory holds that gentrification will inevitably improve the living conditions of all residents.17 Talen asserts that New Urbanists should drop the language of community‐building and social change altogether and focus primarily on the physical aspects which seem more widely accepted.18 The CNU will have to decide what the appropriate goals of New Urbanism will be in the future and whether physical revitalization only or an inclusion of a social purpose also is most appropriate. An urban planning theory lacking social ambitions, however risks becoming irrelevant and currently people versus place is not the major debate. The Charter of the Congress for New Urbanism firmly asserts that both are crucial to the creation of stable and flourishing communities.19 Therefore the primary research question for this paper will not focus on whether New Urbanism is an appropriate context for the provision of affordable housing. This question is already settled by the CNU. The question that remains is not whether affordable housing should exist but does it exist? More importantly how did it come to exist in this context and how can it be replicated in other settings? Although many New Urbanist plans have been situated in greenfield suburban sites it is urban infill settings which are most controversial because it is in these areas that New Urbanism either has the 16 Duany, Andres. (2001). “Three Cheers for Gentrification.” American Enterprise Magazine April/May: 36-9. 17 Duany, Andres. (2001). “Three Cheers for Gentrification.” American Enterprise Magazine April/May: 36-9. 18 Talen, Emily. (1999). "Sense of Community and Neighborhood Form: An Assessment of the Social Doctrine of New Urbanism." Urban Studies 36(8): 18. 19 Charter for New Urbanism 6 potential to positively affect neighborhoods or threatens to once again cause displacement through gentrification. Bohl defends New Urbanist developments for the inner‐city by emphasizing that in contrast with urban infill programs of the past, such as Urban Renewal, New Urbanism does not usually cause widespread slum clearance.20 Additionally, the Congress for New Urbanism strongly believes that the built environment should be contextual.21 New Urbanism opposes the unpopular “barracks‐style” and “towers in the park” versions of public housing and replaces them with forms more appropriate to an existing neighborhood and likely more desirable to its residents.22 Affordability in urban applications of New Urbanism remains an issue as much as in suburban settings. Talen’s survey of New Urbanist developments found that the majority of affordable developments were located in already moderately priced cities of medium size in the Midwest.23 Bohl, along with Bernstein and the Center for Neighborhood Technology, claim that New Urbanist developments provide a greater potential for affordability because of the reduction in transit costs and the feasibility of living without a car.24 Bernstein has found that working families (those earning between $20,000 and $50,000 annually) often spend a percentage of their income on transportation which is nearly equivalent to and sometimes exceeding that of housing costs.25 The Center for Neighborhood Technology (CNT) found that nationwide the average working family spent thirty percent of their income on housing and twenty‐seven percent on transportation. Additionally the CNT has found a linkage between an increase in gas prices and an increase in the rate of foreclosures in 20 Bohl, C. C. (2000). “New Urbanism and the City: Potential Applications and Implications for Distressed Inner‐City Neighborhoods.” Housing Policy Debate 11(4): 40. 21 Charter for CNU 22 Bohl, C. C. (2000). “New Urbanism and the City: Potential Applications and Implications for Distressed Inner‐City Neighborhoods.” Housing Policy Debate 11(4): 40. 23 Talen, Emily (2010). “Affordability in New Urbanist Development: Principle, Practice and Strategy.” Journal of Urban Affairs. 32(4): 489. 24 Bernstein, Scott. (2007). How Do We Know It's Affordable? New Tools for Measuring the Value of Urban Quality and Choice. CNU XV Conference: New Urbanism and the Old City, Philadelphia, PA. 25 Bernstein, Scott. (2010). Redefining Affordability. Home Depot Foundation National Partners and Federal Government Officials Convening, Washington, D.C. 7 some areas. The Cranston‐Gonzalez Act defined affordable housing costs as 30% of a household’s income, a widely accepted standard. However there is no such measure defining how much a household should spend on transportation or what the overall percentage between housing and transportation should equal. In a mixed‐use or New Urbanist context the issue of transportation costs becomes more relevant. A slightly higher rent or mortgage may be justified if one does not need to commute to work or drive for daily errands. CNT has begun to develop an affordability index including housing and transportation costs in which an affordable range is less than 45% of income. Research is lacking in this area, however, and it is not entirely possible to predict whether potential savings in transportation costs would be enough to outweigh the generally higher housing prices of New Urbanist developments. There is a lack of empirical research on the topic of housing affordability in New Urbanist developments generally.26 The overwhelming perception of New Urbanist developments is that they tend to be high‐end and marketed exclusively to the wealthy. Bohl insists that this perception is wrong in many instances because the developments utilize efficient construction methods and inexpensive forms of ornamentation.27 He claims that a “Puritanical” view of low‐income housing popular with Americans is that affordable or public housing should be unadorned or even ugly and buildings possessing any ornamentation are perceived as more expensive than they actually are.28 A 2006 article in Pine Magazine demonstrated the lack of affordability of New Urbanist developments in Atlanta.29 The author surveyed a few well‐known developments and compared the lowest sale price for a two‐bedroom home to the average median income for a four‐person family and found that the units were unaffordable even for a moderate‐income family. Talen’s much larger survey of hundreds of New 26 Talen, Emily. (2008). Affordable Housing in New Urbanism. CNU XVI, Austin, Texas. 27 Bohl, C. C. (2000). "New Urbanism and the City: Potential Applications and Implications for Distressed Inner-City Neighborhoods." Housing Policy Debate 11(4): 40. 28 Bohl, C. C. (2000). "New Urbanism and the City: Potential Applications and Implications for Distressed Inner-City Neighborhoods." Housing Policy Debate 11(4): 40. 29 “Can We Afford New Urbanism?” (2005) Pine Magazine. Atlanta. 8 Urbanist developments throughout the country found that around 15% were affordable to low or moderate income families, with very few of these being affordable to very low‐income familes (excluding those created under the HOPE VI program).30 Therefore, evidence is beginning to show that there appears to be an affordability problem with New Urbanism. Exclusion through pricing betrays the principles of the Charter of New Urbanism: it does not provide a diverse range of ages or incomes and, by forcing service or other workers in the developments to commute from outlying areas, reduces its claim to promote a pedestrian lifestyle and reduced need for an automobile. The issue of affordability becomes more important as New Urbanism becomes increasingly more popular in areas which currently are affordable for low and moderate‐income households. There are several barriers to affordability in New Urbanism. There is often a premium to be paid for the amenities that New Urbanist developments offer. The prices for renting an apartment in a building that contains a pool, lounge, game room and other public amenities are necessarily higher than renting in a building without these amenities. The cost is included as part of the rent for all residents. In a New Urbanist households pay for the public space that is provided. Studies have found that New Urbanist developments command up to an eighteen percent premium in pricing for design and other amenities. The financing mechanisms for mixed‐income developments are already complicated and many developers do not want to tackle affordability requirements in fear of jeopardizing profitability.31 The Affordability Initiative of the Congress for New Urbanism recommends an overhaul of the zoning and administrative requirements in many municipalities in order to allow for greater affordability. This method may align well with other CNU goals because New Urbanist forms are currently illegal in many municipalities and require variances or a rewriting of the code to be built. Another barrier to New 30 Talen, Emily (2010). “Affordability in New Urbanist Development: Principle, Practice and Strategy.” Journal of Urban Affairs. 32(4): 489. 31 Members of the Affordability Initiative, Congress for the New Urbanism. (2010). Affordable Housing in Walkable, Mixed-Use, Mixed-Income Neighborhoods: An Action Plan for Federal Policy Makers. A New Era in Affordable Housing: Investing for Impact for Sustainable Communities. Philadelphia, PA 9 Urbanism may come from within the Congress for New Urbanism and other advocates who support a physical and design‐oriented focus primarily and do not engage in social issues. This “tired people versus place debate”32 is somewhat old news in the CNU, which has created an Affordability Initiative and hosted several conferences including sessions on the possibility and issues of affordability in New Urbanism. However outspoken advocates, such as Duany, remain who assert that “bad design” is the only way to ensure affordability and that gentrification is both natural and beneficial.33 Talen demonstrates in her research that, though affordability in current New Urbanist developments is somewhat rare, it is possible.34 She identifies four primary reasons that these developments were affordable: density, land cost, the inclusion of small units, and construction efficiencies. Two of these, construction efficiencies and small units, are common New Urbanist responses for the provision of affordable housing. This tactic is known as “affordability by design.”35 New Urbanist developers tend to create affordable units that look similar, at least on the exterior, to market‐rate housing. Efficiencies in construction may have affect pricing by downgrading interior appliances and finishes. However, the potential for this impact to drastically affect pricing structures is limited due to the desired uniformity in appearance between affordable and market‐rate units. The inclusion of small units, on the other hand, had a larger overall impact on affordability. The creation of small units or small lots which facilitate only small houses will necessarily keep prices somewhat constrained.36 Duany mentions an attempt to apply this tactic to a neighborhood in order to provide for 32 Talen, Emily (2010). “Affordability in New Urbanist Development: Principle, Practice and Strategy.” Journal of Urban Affairs. 32(4): 489. 33 Duany, Andres. (2001). “Three Cheers for Gentrification.” American Enterprise Magazine April/May: 36-9. 34 Talen, Emily (2010). “Affordability in New Urbanist Development: Principle, Practice and Strategy.” Journal of Urban Affairs. 32(4): 489. 35 Payton, N. (2007). Affordable Housing: The Vitality of Design. CNU XV Conference: New Urbanism and the Old City, Philadelphia, PA. 36 Talen, Emily (2010). “Affordability in New Urbanist Development: Principle, Practice and Strategy.” Journal of Urban Affairs. 32(4): 489. 10
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