the acquisition of english academic language proficiency among grade 7 learners in south african ...

261 Pages·2007·0.97 MB·English

THE ACQUISITION OF ENGLISH ACADEMIC
LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY AMONG GRADE 7
LEARNERS IN SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS

by

TINTSWALO VIVIAN MANYIKE

Submitted in accordance with the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

in the subject

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

at the

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

PROMOTER: PROF EM LEMMER

MARCH 2007
Declaration

I declare that: THE ACQUISITION OF ACADEMIC ENGLISH
LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY is my own work and that all the
sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and
acknowledged by means of complete references

………………………………………….. …………………………………..
Tintswalo Vivian Manyike Date
Student no. 9001166

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Acknowledgements

I would first and foremost like to express my sincerest thanks to my promoter,
Professor E.M. Lemmer. Her keen interest, objective yet friendly criticism, ability to
enhance the researcher’s desire to present original ideas were greatly appreciated.

I also acknowledge with thanks the generous assistance and contributions made by:
• Professor E. Pretorius from the Linguistics Department, for her assistance
with data collection;
• Professor Kamper, for his assistance with the research methodology;
• Dr. Nicolaas Claassen for his assistance with data analysis;
• The Unisa library staff for their assistance with literature search and material
supply;
• The principals, educators and learners who participated in the study and for
their willing co-operation.

The ultimate thank you goes to my husband Peter for encouragement throughout
my studies, to my children Nzalama, Sagwata and Matimu for your understanding
and support and to my mother Elizabeth Ntombizodwa, for always being there for
me.

Tintswalo Vivian Manyike
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Abstract

Language proficiency in the language of learning and teaching (LOLT) is essential for
academic success. In South Africa and elsewhere, many secondary school learners lack
the required academic proficiency in English, the language of learning and teaching.
The English language proficiency of Xitsonga speaking Grade 7 learners was
evaluated in order to suggest ways in which these learners could be helped to
maximise academic success. The author investigated theories of first and second
language acquisition by means of a literature study and presented an overview of
language policy in South African schooling before and after 1994.

A sample of Grade 7 Xitsonga speaking learners was selected from three secondary
schools in the Tshwane metropolitan area, Gauteng Province. Language proficiency
levels were determined by means of the Human Sciences Research Council’s
Standardised English Reading and Writing Proficiency Tests. These tests were also
translated into Xitsonga and administered to the learners. The tests were
administered a month apart in each of the schools.

The tests revealed that:
• there is a significant correlation between the learner’s performance in the
reading and writing performance test for both languages
• the learners’ reading and oral skills in both languages correlate
• irrespective of the level of language proficiency, most learners performed
poorly in their reading skills, such as, recognising inferences related to tone,
punctuation, different types of discourse as well as the prevailing
atmosphere.

The greatest weaknesses were in learners’:
• failure to understand instructions, which meant that their responses to task
demands were inadequate
• inappropriate use of tone register and spelling errors
• incorrect use of punctuation and verb tenses.

The analysis of the learner’s performance in both English and Xitsonga showed that
these learners were generally not capable of handling the requirements of the Grade
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7 curriculum. It was recommended that the learners be guided to make optimal use
of existing facilities, such as, libraries. This could enhance the learners’ language
development. Using learners’ L1 as a medium of instruction for cognitively demanding
texts and intensive in-service and pre-service training for language teachers are also
recommended.
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Table of contents

CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND, PROBLEM FORMULATION AND AIMS

1.1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Language diversity in South African schools.............................................3
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT.............................................................................................5
1.3 AIMS OF STUDY...........................................................................................................5
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..................................................................................6
1.4.1 Empirical Investigation....................................................................................6
1.4.1.1 Selection of schools and respondents.............................................6
1.4.1.2 Data gathering....................................................................................7
1.4.1.3 Test administration procedure.......................................................10
1.4.1.4 Data analysis........................................................................................11
1.4.1.5 Validity and reliability of the tests..................................................11
1.4.1.6 Limitations............................................................................................12
1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS............................................................................................13
1.5.1 Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS)....................................13
1.5.2 Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)..............................13
1.5.3 First language (L1) acquisition......................................................................13
1.5.4 Second language (L2) acquisition...............................................................14
1.6 CHAPTER DIVISION..................................................................................................14
1.7 CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................15

CHAPTER 2: THEORIES OF FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

2.1 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................16
2.2 LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY DEFINED.................................................................16
2.3 FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION..........................................................................17
2.3.1 Stages of first language development........................................................18
2.3.1.1 Cooing....................................................................................................18
2.3.1.2 Babbling................................................................................................19
2.3.1.3 One word..............................................................................................19
2.3.1.4 Two words...........................................................................................20
2.3.1.5 Sentences...............................................................................................21
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2.3.2 Approaches to first language development.............................................21
2.3.2.1 Behaviourist approaches.................................................................22
2.3.2.2 Nativist approaches...........................................................................23
2.3.2.3 Social interaction and language development.........................26
2.3.3 Selected theorists.............................................................................................26
2.3.3.1 Piaget...................................................................................................27
2.3.3.2 Vygotsky...............................................................................................30
2.3.3.3 Cognition and language development........................................34
2.3.3.4 Conclusion: Piaget and Vygotsky..................................................35
2.3.4 Issues in first language development.........................................................38
2.3.4.1 Competence and performance.....................................................38
2.3.4.2 Comprehension and production....................................................39
2.3.4.3 Universals.............................................................................................40
2.3.4.4 Systematic and variability..............................................................40
2.3.4.5 Limitations.............................................................................................41
2.3.4.6 Practice..................................................................................................41
2.3.4.7 Input.......................................................................................................42
2.3.4.8 Discourse...............................................................................................42
2.3.5 Conclusion on first language acquisition...................................................43
2.4 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION..................................................................43
2.4.1 Language and development.......................................................................44
2.4.1.1 Framework for language development.....................................44
2.4.1.2 Conclusion............................................................................................47
2.4.2 Krashen’s contributions..................................................................................47
2.4.2.1 Krashen’s monitor theory................................................................47
2.4.2.2 The Natural Order Hypothesis.......................................................48
2.4.2.3 The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis...........................................48
2.4.2.4 The Monitor Hypothesis....................................................................49
2.4.2.5 The Input Hypothesis.........................................................................49
2.4.2.6 The Affective Filter Hypothesis.......................................................50
2.4.2.7 Evaluation of Krashen’s monitor theory......................................50
2.4.3 Cummins’ contributions..................................................................................51
2.4.3.1 Bilingualism and learning...............................................................52
2.4.3.2 Subtractive bilingualism...................................................................53
2.4.3.3 Additive bilingualism........................................................................53
2.4.3.4 The Threshold hypothesis.................................................................54
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2.4.3.5 Linguistic interdependence..............................................................56
2.4.3.5.1 Relationship between L1 and L2....................................56
2.4.3.6 Criticism of the Interdependence Hypothesis............................57
2.4.3.7 BICS/ CALP Continuum...................................................................59
2.4.3.8 Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP)......................................61
2.4.3.9 Conclusion............................................................................................64
2.5 MODELS OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION.........................................65
2.5.1 Transitional model..........................................................................................65
2.5.2 Maintenance model........................................................................................66
2.5.3 Submersion model...........................................................................................67
2.5.4 An enrichment model....................................................................................69
2.5.5 Immersion programme..................................................................................69
2.5.5.1 Early partial immersion.....................................................................70
2.5.6 Success and failures of various programmes............................................71
2.5.7 Conclusion..........................................................................................................72
2.6 FACTORS INFLUENCING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION................73
2.6.1 Socio-political factors.....................................................................................73
2.6.2 Parental involvement....................................................................................74
2.6.3 Language distance..........................................................................................75
2.6.4 Motivation.........................................................................................................76
2.6.5 Age ...................................................................................................................77
2.7 CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................78

CHAPTER 3: LANGUAGE POLICIES ON EDUCATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

3.1 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................81
3.2 LANGUAGE POLICY IN SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLING: A POLITICAL
HISTORY ....................................................................................................................82
3.2.1 Language policy (1948-1994).......................................................................83
3.2.2 Language policy after 1994..........................................................................86
3.2.2.1 The South African Constitution.....................................................88
3.2.2.2 The South African Schools Act (84 of 1996)................................90
3.2.2.3 Language in Education Policy........................................................92
3.3.2.4 The Norms and Standards Act (1998)...........................................95
3.2.2.5 Curriculum 2005................................................................................95
3.2.2.6 Revised National Curriculum 2005............................................102
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3.2.3 Linguistic realities in the South African education since 1994............105
3.2.3.1 Desegregated schools (Ex model C and independent
schools)................................................................................................105
3.2.3.2 Township public schools...................................................................110
3.2.3.3 Rural public schools............................................................................113
3.2.3.4 School phases.......................................................................................117
3.2.3.5 Classroom interactions in English language classrooms..........123
3.2.3.6 Teachers’ language competence in multilingual settings......125
3.2.3.7 Teacher training and professional development......................128
3.2.3.8 Conclusion on linguistic realities in South African
education...........................................................................................130
3.3 IMPLICATIONS OF LANGUAGE POLICY AND RESEARCH........................132
3.4 CONCLUSION............................................................................................................133

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH DESIGN
4.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................136
4.2 LITERATURE STUDY................................................................................................137
4.3 EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION................................................................................137
4.3.1 Sampling...........................................................................................................138
4.3.1.1 Sampling methods.........................................................................................138
4.3.1.2 Criteria for sample selection..............................................................138
4.4 DESCRIPTION OF SELECTED SCHOOLS...........................................................139
4.4.1 School 1.............................................................................................................140
4.4.1.1 Medium of instruction....................................................................140
4.4.1.2 The school’s teaching and learning culture..............................140
4.4.1.3 Learners’ attitude towards school.................................................141
4.4.1.4 Availability and use of educational resources...........................141
4.4.1.5 Professionalism of teachers............................................................141
4.4.2 School 2.............................................................................................................142
4.4.2.1 Medium of instruction....................................................................142
4.4.2.2 The school’s teaching and learning culture................................143
4.4.2.3 Learner’s attitude towards school................................................144
4.4.2.4 Availability and use of educational resources..........................144
4.4.2.5 Professionalism of teachers ............................................................145
4.4.3 School 3 (School Z).........................................................................................145
4.4.3.1 Medium of instruction.....................................................................145
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4.4.3.2 The school’s teaching and learning culture...............................146
4.4.3.3 Learner’s attitude towards school...............................................146
4.4.3.4 Availability and use of educational resources..........................147
4.4.3.5 Professionalism of teachers.............................................................147
4.5 PHASE 1: SELECTION OF STANDARDISED TESTS........................................147
4.5.1 Test reliability and validity..........................................................................148
4.5.2 Reading Proficiency Test in English..........................................................149
4.5.2.1 Test administration procedure ...................................................150
4.5.2.2 Scoring methods...............................................................................150
4.5.2.3 Sub-sections of the English Reading Proficiency Test.............150
4.5.2.4 Sub-test: comprehension..................................................................151
4.5.2.5 Sub-test: grammar............................................................................151
4.5.3 Writing Proficiency Test in English.............................................................152
4.5.3.1 Test administration procedures....................................................153
4.5.3.2 Scoring methods................................................................................154
4.5.3.3 Sub-sections of the English Writing Proficiency Test................154
4.5.3.4 Sub-test: spelling................................................................................157
4.5.3.5 Subtest: creative writing..................................................................158
4.5.4 Phase 2: Translation of English test materials in to Xitsonga.............158
4.5.5 Phase 3: Piloting translated Xitsonga test materials............................159
4.5.6 Reading Proficiency Test in Xitsonga.......................................................160
4.5.6.1 Test administration procedures...................................................160
4.5.6.2 Scoring methods ................................................................................161
4.5.6.3 Sub-sections of the Xitsonga Reading Proficiency....................161
4.5.6.4 Subtest: comprehension...................................................................162
4.5.6.5 Subtest: grammar.............................................................................162
4.5.6.6 Test administration procedure......................................................163
4.5.6.7 Scoring methods...............................................................................164
4.5.7 Writing Proficiency Test in Xitsonga.........................................................164
4.5.7.1 Test administration procedures...................................................164
4.5.7.2 Scoring methods.................................................................................165
4.5.7.3 Sub-sections of the Xitsonga Writing Proficiency Test............166
4.5.7.4 Subtest: spelling...............................................................................166
4.5.7.5 Subtest: creative writing.................................................................166
4.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS...............................................................................166
4.7 DATA ANALYSIS.......................................................................................................167
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