Test Anxiety

220 Pages·1999·1.59 MB·English

by  Marty Sapp

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Applied Research,
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TEST ANXIETY
Applied Research, Assessment, and
Treatment Interventions
2nd Edition
Marty Sapp
University Press of America, Inc.
Lanham • New York • Oxford
Copyright © 1999 by
University Press of America,® Inc.
4720 Boston Way
Lanham, Maryland 20706
12 Hid's Copse Rd.
Cumnor Hill, Oxford 0X2 9JJ
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
British Library Cataloging in Publication Information Available
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data To my students
Sapp, Marty.
Test Anxiety : applied research, assessment, and treatment
interventions / Marty Sapp. —2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
1. Test anxiety—Research—Statistical methods. 2. Social
sciences—Statistical methods. I. Title.
LB3060.6.S27 1999 371.26'01'9—dc21 99—22530 CIP
ISBN 0-7618-1386-1 (cloth: alk. ppr.)
fc/ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum
requirements of American National Standard for Information
Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials,
ANSI Z39.48—1984
Preface to First Edition Preface to Second Edition
This text is divided into three parts. Part I deals with applied research Over the last five years, the nature of test anxiety research has been
design and statistical methodology frequently occurring in test anxiety influenced greatly by structural equation modeling. One purpose of the
literature. Part II focuses on theories and methods of assessing test second edition of this text is to introduce researchers to the logic of
anxiety using standardized instruments. Part III extensively describes and structural equations and to show how the EQS, structural equation
provides treatment scripts for test anxiety. In addition to advanced program, can easily perform structural equations modeling. Another
undergraduate and graduate students in the social sciences, this text is purpose of this second edition is to synthesize more than 100 studies that
designed to attract two audiences—the quantitatively oriented professors have been published on test anxiety since 1993. Moreover, researchers
teaching statistics and research methodology courses and counseling generally view test anxiety as existing of factors such as Sarason's four-
psychology professors teaching counseling and social sciences research factor model or Spielberger's two-factor model. All of these models of
courses. Essentially, the purpose of this text is to present a conceptual test anxiety can be easily analyzed by EQS; therefore, this second edition
understanding of test anxiety within a research context. provides an entire chapter on structural equation modeling.
On a semester system it is possible to cover all eleven chapters within The features that made the first edition popular, such as applied
two semesters. It seems plausible, since this is an innovative applied research, assessment, and treatment interventions, are retained in the
research textbook on test anxiety, that chapters can be adjusted to fit a second edition; however, a chapter on measurement issues—item response
professor's specific objectives. For example, the treatment scripts could theory and generalizability theory—was added to the second edition. In
be used in a counseling fieldwork or practicum course, while the research addition, control lines are provided for the SAS statistical software.
section would be appropriate for a research methods or statistics course Moreover, nested designs, both the univariate case and multivariate case,
in which the instructor could edit or expand upon the topics presented. are covered in this edition. Comments from students, faculty, and
researchers at various institutions indicated that their institutions had at
least one of these major statistical packages; therefore, readers will have
the option of two packages.
Test Anxiety: Applied Research, Assessment, and Treatment
Interventions, Second Edition, like the previous edition, is directed
toward students in the social sciences because it integrates statistical
methodology and research design with actual research situations that
occur within the test anxiety area. The current edition will draw from two
major audiences—the quantitative professors who teach statistics and
research methodology courses and others who teach counseling
psychology and related courses.
In closure, "the current edition is a brief, applied text on research,
assessment, and treatment interventions for test anxiety. Moreover, the
current edition demonstrates how to conduct test anxiety research, and it
provides actual empirically based treatment interventions. Finally, this
edition presents the two most-employed statistical packages, and
illustrations of EQS for structural equations modeling and confirmatory
factor analysis are provided.
VII
Acknowledgments
Preface
To Students and Social Scientists Now it is time to thank individuals who helped facilitate bringing this
work into press. First, I would like to thank Daniel Bieser for running
This text was designed to give you the courage and confidence to many of the statistical exercises for the first edition and Khyana
understand and conduct test anxiety research; however, the research skills Pumphrey for running many of the exercises for the second edition.
employed in test anxiety are those generally employed in the social Second, June Lehman deserves thanks for proofreading this entire text.
sciences. By combining research methods and design with applied In addition, I offer thanks to Cathy Mae Nelson for bringing this text into
research statistics, this text offers a perspective not found in any other camera-ready condition. I am grateful to the Literary Executor of the late
texts on applied research that this writer is aware of; therefore, this text Sir Ronald A. Fisher, F.R.S., to Dr. Frank Yates, F.R.S., to Longman
would be useful for applied social scientists. Group, Ltd., London, and to Oliver and Boyd, Ltd., Edinburgh for
Students taking an introductory or intermediate statistics or research permission to reproduce statistical tables B and J from their book,
methods course will find this text a useful supplement. Unlike other texts, Statistical Tables for Biological, Agricultural and Medical Research.
example after example of applied research situations are described along Thanks goes to Helen Hudson and James E. Lyons for their continued
with an adequate sample of exercises followed by detailed solutions. In support and encouragement. I would like to also thank my department at
contrast to traditional texts with statistical exercises, this text provides the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee and the following individuals at
solutions following every exercise so that students and social scientists the University of Cincinnati. First, Dr. James Stevens, who taught me
can obtain instant feedback. Possibly, the most useful feature of this text research design and statistics. Second, Dr. Patricia O'Reilly, the
for advanced level students and applied researchers are the complete chairperson of my doctoral committee. And third, Dr. Purcell Taylor, Dr.
control lines for running statistical analyses on the SPSSX and SAS Judith Frankel, and Dr. Marvin Berlowitz, all of whom served on my
computer software. Many statistical analyses that are usually covered in doctoral committee. Finally, I would like to thank Dr. David L. Johnson
introductory, intermediate, and advanced statistics courses are discussed who served as my doctoral internship supervisor.
along with the exact codes for running them on SPSSX and SAS. In closing, it is hoped that this text will help students and social
In summary, a text on test anxiety that combines applied research, scientists learn to understand and conduct test anxiety research. Social
assessment, and treatment interventions has not heretofore been available; scientists and students in social sciences will find that this is an excellent
neither has one offering clear procedures for assessing test anxiety. In applied research reference book with many exercises and examples. Note
order to demonstrate how to assess test anxiety, the reproduction of that careful studying of the research chapters is necessary to facilitate
several commonly used self-report measures of test anxiety are provided. one's understanding of the social science research. Comments or
Finally, it is hoped that this text will facilitate your development as an discussions concerning this text—both positive and negative—are
applied researcher in test anxiety or in social science research. encouraged. My address is The University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee,
Department of Educational Psychology, 2400 E. Hartford Avenue,
Milwaukee, WI 53211. My telephone number is [phone], my e-
mail address is [email protected], and my Fax number is [phone].
Marty Sapp
Contents
Page
Preface to First Edition iv
Preface to Second Edition v
Preface to Students and Social Scientists vi
Part I Applied Research 1
Chapter 1 Variables Employed in Test Anxiety Research 3
1.1 Variables 5
1.2 Confounding Variables 5
1.3 Independent Variables 5
1.4 Dependent Variables 5
1.5 Moderator Variables 6
1.6 Control Variables 6
1.7 Intervening Variables 7
1.8 Suppressor Variables 7
1.9 Exercises 7
1.10 Summary 8
Chapter 2 Internal Validity 9
2.1 Threats to Internal Validity 11
2.2 History 11
2.3 Maturation 12
2.4 Pretest Sensitization 12
2.5 Selection 12
2.6 Statistical Regression 12
2.7 Experimental Mortality or Attrition 13
2.8 Instrumentation 13
2.9 Statistical Error 13
2.10 Expectation Effects 14
2.11 Double- and Single-Blind Controls for
Expectation Effects 14
2.12 Exercises 14
2.13 Summary 15
XI
Mode 45
Chapter 3 Difficulties that Occur with Test Anxiety Median 45
Research 17 5.2 Characteristics of the Mean 46
5.3 When to Use the Mode 48
3.1 External Validity 19 5.4 When to Use the Median 49
3.2 Difficulties that Occur with Test Anxiety Research 19 5.5 Skewed Distributions 49
3.3 Hawthorne Effect 19 5.6 When to Use the Mean 52
3.4 Demand Characteristics 19 5.7 Measures 52
3.5 Evaluation Apprehension 20 Standard Deviation 52
3.6 Social Desirability 20 Variance 52
3.7 Placebo Effect 20 5.8 Computer Examples for Measures of Central Tendency
3.8 Controlling the Hawthorne Effect 20 and Measures of Variability 55
3.9 Reactivity 21 5.9 SPSSX Release 4.0 56
3.10 Pretest and Posttest Sensitization 21 5.10 Applications of the Mean and Standard Deviation
3.11 Generalization of Results 21 to the Normal Curve 63
3.12 Summary 21 5.11 Moments: Measures of Skewness and Kurtosis 64
5.12 Summary 67
Chapter 4 Common Research Designs 23 5.13 Exercises 68
4.1 One-Group Designs 25 Chapter 6 Common Univariate Statistics 71
4.2 Independent Two-Group Designs 26
4.3 Related Two-Group Designs 27 6.1 Hypothesis Testing 73
4.4 Multiple Treatment Designs: 28 6.2 t-test for Independent Groups 78
Factorial Designs 28 6.3 t-test for Related or Correlated Groups 89
Solomon Design 29 6.4 t-test a Special Case of Correlation or Regression 93
4.5 Quasi-Experimental Designs: 31 6.5 One-way Analysis of Variance 94
Time-Series Designs 31 6.6 SPSSX Power Estimate and Effect Size Measures 103
Nonequivalent Control Group Designs 33 6.7 Two-way ANOVA 105
Equivalent Time-Samples 34 6.8 Disporportional Cell Size or Unbalanced
4.6 Counterbalanced Designs 35 Factorial Designs 118
4.7 Nested Designs 37 6.9 Planned Comparisons and the Tukey Post Hoc Procedure ..123
4.8 Exercises 40 6.10 One-Way Analysis of Covariance 141
4.9 Summary 40 6.11 Post Hoc Procedures for ANCOVA 149
6.12 SPSSX Control Lines for Factorial Analysis
Chapter 5 Measures of Centra. Tendency and Measures of Covariance 150
43
of Variabilibility 6.13 Nested Designs 151
6.14 Summary 155
.45
Measures of Central Tendency . .45
5.1 Averages .45
Mean
Chapter 7 Multivariate Research Statistical Methodology 7.29 Choosing a Statistical Procedure 216
Using SPSSX and SAS 161
7.30 Statistical Application Exercises 218
7.1 One-Group Repeated Measures ANOVA 162
Part II: Measurement Issues 225
7.2 Assumptions of Repeated Measures 162
7.3 Violations of Sphericity Assumption 163
Chapter 8 Measurement Issues 227
7.4 Controversy in Calculations of Greenhouse
Epsilon Statistic 164 8.1 Measurement Issues 229
7.5 Tukey Post Hoc Procedure for One-Group Repeated 8.2 Testing the Dimensionality of the Worry Component or
Measures Design 170 the Test Anxiety Inventory with Economically and
7.6 Tukey Confidence Intervals for One-Group Repeated Educationally At-Risk High School Students: Employing
Measures ANOVA 171 Item Response Theory Analysis and Principal
7.7 One-Group Repeated Measures ANOVA Exercises 172 Components Analysis 230
7.8 Multiple Regression 178
7.9 Steps for Cross-Validating Regression Equations 176 Chapter 9 Introduction to Structural Equation Modeling
7.10 Number of Recommended Subjects Per Predictor Using EQS 251
for Regression Equations 177
7.11 Relationship Among R2, Y, and F 178 9.1 Overview of Structural Equation Models 253
7.12 Assumptions of Multiple Regression 178 9.2 Elements of the EQS Control Language 256
7.13 When Regression Assumptions Appear to Be Violated .... 184 9.3 EQS Path Analysis 257
7.14 Six Methods of Selecting Predictors and Regression 9.4 Selected Output from EQS path Analysis 258
Models 184 9.5 EQS Confirmatory Factor Analysis 258
7.15 SPSSX Control Lines for Running the Backward 9.6 Selected Output from Confirmatory Factor Analysis 259
Elimination Process 187 9.7 Confirmatory Factor Analysis Exercise 261
7.16 Multiple Regression Exercises 197 9.8 Identification 263
7.17 K Group MANOVA 197 9.9 Model Modification 263
7.18 Assumptions of MANOVA 198 9.10 Summary 264
7.19 SPSSX for K Group MANOVA 199
7.20 K Group MANOVA Exercises 202 Part III: Assessment 267
7.21 Factorial Multivariate Analysis of Variance 202
7.22 Factorial MANOVA Exercises 205 Chapter 10 Assessment 269
7.23 Multivariate Analysis of Covariance: Three Covariates
and Three Dependent Variables 205 10.1 Constructs of Test Anxiety 271
7.24 Factorial MANCOVA: One Covariate and Two 10.2 Defining Test Anxiety 272
Dependent Variables 208 10.3 Parent-Child Interactions and the Development of
7.25 One-Way MANCOVA Exercises 209 Test Anxiety 272
7.26 Post Hoc Procedures for MANCOVA 209 10.4 Measuring Test Anxiety in Children 273
7.27 Nested MANOVA 210 10.5 The School Environment, Motivation, Learned
7.28 Summary 215 Helplessness, and Test Anxiety 275
10.6 Self-Efficacy and Test Anxiety 276
APPENDIX 375
10.7 Measuring Test-Wiseness 278
10.8 The Components of Test Anxiety 279
Table A Percent Area Under the Normal Curve Between
10.9 Recommendations for Parents 284
10.10 Test Anxiety and Performance 286 the Mean and Z 377
10.11 Test Anxiety Measures for Adolescents and Adults 287
10.12 The Development of Mathematical Test Anxiety ;.. . 293 Table B Critical Values oft 378
10.13 Test Anxiety in the Academically At-Risk 294
10.14 Summary 296 Table C Critical Values of F 380
Part IV: Treatment Interventions 319 Table D Percentage Points of the Studentized Range 385
Chapter 11 Treatment Interventions 321 Table E Critical Values for Bryant-Paulson Procedure 389
11.1 Psychotherapy Efficacy 323 Table F The Hartley F-MAX Test for Homogeneity
11.2 Research to Support Treatment Scripts for Test Anxiety . .. 325
11.3 Appropriate Clientele and Qualifications for of Variances 392
Treatment Scripts 327
11.4 Introduction to Study Skills Counseling Script 328 Table G Critical Values for Dunnett's Test 394
11.5 Study Skills Counseling Session 1 328
11.6 Study Skills counseling Session 2 329 Table H Critical Values of Pearson r 395
11.7 Study Skills Counseling Session 3 330
11.8 Study Skills Counseling Session 4 332 Table I Critical Values of rs (Spearman Rank-Order
11.9 Supportive Counseling Script 334
11.10 Introduction to Relaxation Therapy Script 338 Correlation Coefficient) 397
11.11 Relaxation Therapy Session 1 340
11.12 Relaxation Therapy Session 2 344 Table J Critical Value of Chi-Square 398
11.13 Relaxation Therapy Session 3 347
11.14 Relaxation Therapy Session 4 349 Table K A Table of Random Numbers 400
11.15 Systematic Desensitization 35]
11.16 Summary of Cognitive-Behavioral Hypnosis Author Index 403
Therapy Script 356
11.17 Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy 366 Subject Index 411
Part I: Applied Research