Tertullian's Attitude towards the Human Foetus and Embryo

232 Pages·2014·1.81 MB·English

by  Julian Andrew Barr

Tertullian’s Attitude towards the Human Foetus and Embryo
Julian Andrew Barr
BA, Honours (Class 1)

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at
The University of Queensland in 2014.
School of History, Philosophy, Religion and Classics
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Abstract

Much of the current scholarship on Tertullian’s attitude towards offspring in utero has
examined the issue in light of the modern abortion debate. Traditionally, modern commentators on
the history of abortion have discussed passages from Tertullian concerning the unborn child in
isolation, paying no attention to their original context. Such reductionism has resulted in a
diminution of Tertullian’s attitude towards the unborn child to a simplified dogma. Scholars have
frequently constructed Tertullian as an absolutist opponent of abortion at all stages of pregnancy,
overlooking the finer subtleties of his views. This thesis provides a more accurate picture by
examining Tertullian’s rhetorical aims, his deft use of Greco-Roman medical sources, and his
engagement with Christian and Roman cultural preconceptions regarding the foetus and embryo.
Tertullian’s views on the unborn child should be considered in the context of his aims and methods
as a writer of rhetoric. When Tertullian’s treatises are analysed in terms of their rhetorical structure,
it becomes clear that abortion was never an over-riding concern for him. Rather, he used abortion
and the figure of the unborn child to help prove or disprove specific arguments, none of which
related to abortion directly.
This study also considers the context of previous Christian writing on the status of the
human embryo and foetus. When placed alongside earlier patristic authors, it is clear that Tertullian
borrowed his denunciation of abortion as a form of infanticide from a pre-existing Christian
tradition. Several Christian sources prior to Tertullian, such as the Didache, Clement of Alexandria,
and Athenagoras had denounced abortion as an act of homicide on the basis of Scripture. Tertullian
was innovative, however, in that he was the first Christian writer to construe abortion explicitly as
murder for the entire duration of gestation. Though Tertullian was not the first Christian writer to
argue against abortion, he was the first to incorporate ideas from medical authors in his rhetoric,
especially Soranus of Ephesus. Yet Tertullian did not consistently follow any particular paradigm of
prenatal development. Instead, he alternately borrowed, adapted, and rejected embryological
theories according to their usefulness to support his arguments. At times, he freely borrowed from
Aristotle’s theory of generation, arguing on this basis that the embryo only gained personhood
during the process of gestation.
Finally, the thesis argues that Tertullian’s condemnation of abortion owed something to the
pagan as well as Christian world. As a Roman author, Tertullian wrote in a literary culture whose
attitude towards abortion was overwhelmingly negative. Although Tertullian presented himself as
being hostile towards Roman tradition, he often borrowed the Latin trope where women who defied
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their husbands were characterised as practitioners of abortion. Moreover, Stoic opposition to
abortion perhaps influenced Tertullian. It is also highly unlikely that Tertullian influenced the
emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla regarding the legality of abortion. This study thus
demonstrates that, in order to understand Tertullian’s attitude towards unborn children fully, his
works must be analysed in context and against the backdrop of Roman family tradition.

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Declaration by author

This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or
written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly
stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis.

I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical
assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial
advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis
is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree
candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for
the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have
clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award.

I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and,
subject to the General Award Rules of The University of Queensland, immediately made available
for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968.

I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright
holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the
copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis.

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Publications during candidature

Barr, J. 2012. ‘Sallust: Corrupt Politician and Historian.’ Crossroads 6: 58-63.

Publications included in this thesis

“No publications included”

Contributions by others to the thesis

“No contributions by others”

Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree

“None”

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Acknowledgements
I wish to acknowledge the assistance and support of several people. Firstly, I’d like to thank
my advisor, Dr. Janette McWilliam, who introduced me to the idea of studying Roman childhood,
and has patiently supervised my research over the past three years. Thanks are also due to all the
Classics staff at the University of Queensland. My associate advisor, Dr. Tom Stevenson, first
suggested that Tertullian might be an appropriate focus for my research, for which I am very
grateful. Dr. Amelia Brown, Dr. Caillan Davenport, Mr. Denis Brosnan, Mr. Murray Kane, Dr.
David Pritchard, and Dr. Luca Asmonti have also been very generous with their time and expertise,
broadening and deepening my understanding of ancient languages as well as many other aspects of
antiquity. What’s more, it has been an absolute pleasure to be part of the postgraduate community at
UQ’s School of History, Philosophy, Religion and Classics. I thank each and every one of its
members for providing such a great working environment. Special thanks are also due to Prof. Bob
Milns, Prof. John Whitehorne, Dr. Sonia Puttock, and Prof. Rick Strelan, whose advice has proven
invaluable.
I deeply appreciate the financial support I have received through the Australian Postgraduate
Award, the UQ Grad School’s startup grant, and the Queensland Friends of the Australian
Archaeological Institute at Athens.
I have also had the pleasure of corresponding with Dr. Zubin Mistry of University College
London about Tertullian’s impact upon medieval thought, in anticipation of his forthcoming book. I
have also enjoyed my correspondence with Dr. Tommy Heyne (MD) about Tertullian’s approach to
medicine. Dr. Heyne very kindly provided me a copy of his 2011 article on the subject, which has
proven very helpful for this thesis.
The diligent proofreading efforts of my friends, Mr. Chris Spensley, Dr. Hollie Thomas, and
Dr. Katherine Harper, have helped me enormously. I would also particularly like to thank Ms.
Johanna Qualmann for her outstanding support over the last eighteen months. She is an excellent
proofreader, babysitter, and friend.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the support and fortitude of all my friends and family.
Not one but two sets of parents have provided me endless encouragement as well as practical
assistance. But without my beloved wife, Kelly, none of this would have been possible—you are
my inspiration.
Mischief managed!
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Keywords
Tertullian, Christian ethics, abortion, medicine, unborn, foetus, embryo, soul, rhetoric

Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC)
ANZSRC code: 210306, Classical Greek and Roman History, 100%

Fields of Research (FoR) Classification

FoR code: 2103, Historical Studies, 100%

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Table of Contents

List of Abbreviations Used in the Thesis ................................................................................................ 9
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter I: Rhetoric and the Unborn ..................................................................................................... 37
Chapter II: The Christian Context ....................................................................................................... 102
Chapter III: Tertullian’s Understanding of Prenatal Biology .............................................................. 152
Chapter IV: The Pagan Context ........................................................................................................... 172
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 211
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................ 214

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List of Abbreviations Used in the Thesis

Generally, this thesis employs the abbreviations used in the Oxford Classical Dictionary. Biblical
texts are abbreviated according to the Chicago Manual of Style, 16th Edition. Abbreviations of texts
not listed in the Oxford Classical Dictionary are as follows:
August. Haer. Augustine, De Haeresibus Liber Unus
Clem. Al. Ecl. Clement of Alexandria, Eclogae
Festus De Sign. Verb. Festus, De Verborum Significatu
Hippoc. Ius. Hippocrates, Ius Iurandum (Oath)
Jer. Apolog. Adv. Ruf. Jerome, Apologeticum Adversus Rufinum
Juv. Sat. Juvenal, Saturae
Mart. Epigr. Martial, Epigrammata
Pass. Perp. Passio Perpetuae
Pass. Scil. Passio Sanctorum Scilitanorum
Philo Spec. Leg. Philo, De Specialibus Legibus
Tert. Adv. Prax. Tertullian, Adversus Praxean
Tert. An. Tertullian, De Anima
Tert. Carn. Tertullian, De Carne Christi
Tert. Cor. Tertullian, De Corona
Tert. Cult. Fem. Tertullian, De Cultu Feminarum
Tert. Ex. Cast. Tertullian, De Exhortatione Castitatis
Tert. Jej. Tertullian, De Ieiunio
Tert. Mart. Tertullian, Ad Martyras
Tert. Or. Tertullian, De Oratione
Tert. Pall. Tertullian, De Pallio
Tert. Pud. Tertullian, De Pudicitia
Tert. Res. Tertullian, De Resurrectione Mortuorum
Tert. Ux. Tertullian, Ad Uxorem
Tert. Virg. Vel. Tertullian, De Virginibus Velandis

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Introduction

Scholars of Greek and Roman history have long adhered to the idea that attitudes
towards children are not constant throughout history.1 Rather, the attitudes towards children
that ancient authors express in their literature are subject to numerous factors, such as
rhetorical precepts, religious concerns, medical theories, as well as social mores and ideas of
family. It is particularly important for historians to recognise the mutability of views
concerning children over time when studying ancient authors’ attitudes towards foetal and
embryonic life. In any society, the degree to which a foetus or embryo possesses human
identity is largely subjective. The foetus or embryo is incapable of defining or justifying its
own identity. Therefore, the extent to which the offspring in utero can or should be viewed as
a human being is inevitably determined by others, as is its value to society. The process of
assigning value to an embryo or foetus is also inherently influenced by cultural perceptions of
the body, the soul and the relationship between them.
The literary works of Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (c. AD 160–c. 225)
represent an important epoch in the history of ancient attitudes towards the foetus and
embryo. Though his ideas as presented on the page were far from consistent, Tertullian of
Carthage was the first Christian writer to argue rigorously that human existence began at
conception, and that abortion was therefore homicide for the entire duration of pregnancy.
Moreover, he was the first surviving Latin writer to examine the unborn child at length.
Despite the clear significance of this turning point in the history of the family, classical
scholars have paid surprisingly little attention to Tertullian’s attitude towards the child in
utero. The issue has hitherto mostly been addressed by theologians, and often with a view

1 This theory finds its origins in the French historian Philippe Ariès’ 1960 book, L’Enfant et la vie familiale sous
l’ancien regime, and in its 1962 English translation, Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life.
Ariès (1962: 125) went so far as to suggest that the concept and experience of childhood is a product of the
modern period, and did not exist beforehand. Here he writes: ‘In medieval society, the idea of childhood did not
exist.’ Lloyd deMause in 1974 picked up Ariès’ theory in his History of Childhood, arguing that parents of
antiquity regarded their children without sentiment, and with an attitude of callous self-interest. In this work,
deMause (1974: 1) summarised his viewpoint: ‘The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have
only recently begun to awaken. The further back in history one goes, the lower the level of child care, and the
more likely children are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorized, and sexually abused. It is our task here to
see how much of this childhood history can be recaptured from the evidence that remains to us.’ The studies of
Ariès and deMause sparked a new interest in the concept of childhood in antiquity, prompting subsequent
generations of classical scholars to argue that childhood was indeed a concept known in antiquity, though the
Greeks and Romans did approach their children with attitudes particular to their times and places, e.g. Néraudau
1984: 13-18; Golden 1988: 152-163; Wiedemann 1989: 1-3; Dixon 2001: 9-11; Minten 2002: 9-12; Rawson
2003: 1-13; Bakke 2005; 1-14; Laes 2010: 13-19; Beaumont 2012: 7-9; and Evans Grubbs 2013: 1-17.
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