Tensor properties of solids phenomenological development of the tensor properties of crystals PDF
Preview Tensor properties of solids phenomenological development of the tensor properties of crystals
Tensor Properties of Solids Phenomenological Development of the Tensor Properties of Crystals MC:Tinder FM_Page i - 12/28/2007, 10:39AM Achorn International Copyright © 2008 by Morgan & Claypool All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other except for brief quotations in printed reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher. Tensor Properties of Solids: Phenomenological Development of the Tensor Properties of Crystals Richard F. Tinder www.morganclaypool.com ISBN: 1598293486 paperback ISBN: 9781598293487 paperback ISBN: 1598293494 ebook ISBN: 9781598293494 ebook DOI: 10.2200/S00057ED1V01Y200712ENG04 DOI: 10.2200/S00058ED1V01Y200712ENG05 A Publication in the Morgan & Claypool Publishers series SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON ENGINEERING # 4 Lecture #4 Series ISSN ISSN 1939-5221 print ISSN 1939-523X electronic MC:Tinder FM_Page ii - 12/28/2007, 10:39AM Achorn International Tensor Properties of Solids Phenomenological Development of the Tensor Properties of Crystals Richard F. Tinder Washington State University SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON ENGINEERING # 4 M &C Morgan& Claypool Publishers MC:Tinder FM_Page iii - 12/28/2007, 10:39AM Achorn International iv ABSTRACT Tensor Properties of Solids presents the phenomenological development of solid state properties rep- resented as matter tensors in two parts: Part I on equilibrium tensor properties and Part II on transport tensor properties. Part I begins with an introduction to tensor notation, transformations, algebra, and calcu- lus together with the matrix representations. Crystallography, as it relates to tensor properties of crystals, completes the background treatment. A generalized treatment of solid-state equilibrium thermodynamics leads to the systematic correlation of equilibrium tensor properties. This is fol- lowed by developments covering first-, second-, third-, and higher-order tensor effects. Included are the generalized compliance and rigidity matrices for first-order tensor properties, Maxwell rela- tions, effect of measurement conditions, and the dependent coupled effects and use of interaction diagrams. Part I concludes with the second- and higher-order effects, including numerous optical tensor properties. Part II presents the driving forces and fluxes for the well-known proper conductivities. An introduction to irreversible thermodynamics includes the concepts of microscopic reversibility, Onsager’s reciprocity principle, entropy density production, and the proper choice of the transport parameters. This is followed by the force–flux equations for electronic charge and heat flow and the relationships between the proper conductivities and phenomenological coefficients. The thermo- electric effects in solids are discussed and extended to the piezothermoelectric and piezoresistance tensor effects. The subjects of thermomagnetic, galvanomagnetic, and thermogalvanomagnetic ef- fects are developed together with other higher-order magnetotransport property tensors. A glossary of terms, expressions and symbols are provided at the end of the text, and end- of-chapter problems are provided on request. Endnotes provide the necessary references for further reading. KeywoRdS tensor properties, crystals, thermodynamics, equilibrium, transport MC:Tinder FM_Page iv - 12/28/2007, 10:39AM Achorn International v Preface An exhaustive in-depth treatment of the tensor properties of crystals would be a daunting task and would require several books on the subject, each of which would be of considerable length. This would require each property, experimentally known to exist or predicted by theory, to be developed from first principles at the atomic or quantum mechanical level. This is not what this text is about. We purport to develop the physical properties of solids (actually crystals) from the thermodynamic and tensorial points of view, which, if done correctly, provide a valuable introduction to a multitude of physical properties. The phenomenological development used in this text permits a thermody- namic basis for property definitions that is inviolate or nearly so. However, it is correct to say that many of the matter tensor properties defined in this way may not have been studied previously to establish their relative importance. This text is designed to be used as a one-semester or two-quarter course in the subject matter. It also serves as a valuable source of information for practicing engineers and scientists in related fields. Although the text provides the necessary background in tensor analysis, the readership is expected to have some knowledge of calculus and matrix algebra. An understanding of basic vec- tor analysis is also deemed helpful. The necessary information regarding crystallography and point groups as they relate to this text is provided as background material in the text. The contents of this text are based on the author’s notes used for a graduate course taught over several years at Washington State University to graduate students and second-semester seniors in the areas of material science, electrical and mechanical engineering, physics, and chemical phys- ics. An instructor of a course in this subject matter is provided ample opportunity to limit, alter, or expound on any part of the text material as needed to satisfy the course description and needs of the students. Extensive glossaries of terms, expressions, and symbols at the end of the text aid in the learning process. As with any text dealing with complex subject matter, there will undoubtedly be found typos and errors that were overlooked by the author. Hopefully, these have been kept to a minimum. However, should any be found by the instructor or readers, the author would appreciate knowing of them so that corrections can be made. The author may be contacted at the following e-mail address: [email protected]. MC:Tinder FM_Page v - 12/28/2007, 10:39AM Achorn International MC:Tinder FM_Page vi - 12/28/2007, 10:39AM Achorn International vii Acknowledgments The author is deeply indebted to the many senior and graduate students for their countless ques- tions, comments, arguments, and suggestions given during the many years that the contents of this text were used as notes in the conduct of the author’s graduate course taught at Washington State University. As most professors know, students can and do provide the most candid and critical as- sessments of material presented in a given course. The author also acknowledges the suggestions and contributions of Prof. Elias (Lee) Stefanakos to the subject matter presented in this text, in par- ticular, to the optical effects presented in Chapter 7. Dr. Stefanakos is director of the Clean Energy Research Center at the University of South Florida. Gratefully acknowledged is the encouragement and helpful suggestions offered by Joel Claypool, publisher of Morgan & Claypool Publishers. Finally and most importantly, the author acknowledges the support, care, and understanding of his loving wife, his best friend and confidante, Gloria. MC:Tinder FM_Page vii - 12/28/2007, 10:39AM Achorn International MC:Tinder FM_Page viii - 12/28/2007, 10:39AM Achorn International ix Contents I equilibrium Tensor Properties of Solids ...............................................................1 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................3 1.1 Definition of a Tensor Property ..............................................................3 1.2 Concepts of Equilibrium and Reversibility .............................................4 1.3 Interaction Diagrams and First-Order Equilibrium Property Nomenclature and Representation ..........................................................5 1.4 Interaction Diagram for the First-Order Nonequilibrium Tensor Properties ................................................................................................9 2. Introduction to Tensor Notation, Tensor Transformations, Tensor Calculus, and Matrix Representation ...............................................................................13 2.1 Introduction to Tensor and Matrix Notation ........................................13 2.2 Transformation of Tensors ....................................................................14 2.2.1 Transformation of Scalars .........................................................15 2.2.2 Transformation of Vectors ........................................................15 2.2.3 Transformation of Second-Rank Tensors .................................16 2.2.4 Symmetrical and Antisymmetrical Second-Rank Tensors ........17 2.2.5 Quadratic Transformation Forms .............................................19 2.2.6 Transformation of Third-Rank Tensors ....................................20 2.2.7 Transformation of Fourth-Rank Tensors ..................................22 2.2.8 Summary of Tensor Transformation Laws ................................25 2.3 Introduction to Tensor Algebra .............................................................25 2.3.1 Tensor Addition ........................................................................26 2.3.2 Tensor Multiplication ................................................................26 2.3.3 Outer Product ...........................................................................27 2.3.4 Tensor Contraction ...................................................................27 2.4 Axial Tensors .........................................................................................29 2.5 Taylor’s Series Expansion and the Tensor Differentiation Laws ...........30 2.6 Tensor Fields and Tensor Operators .....................................................31 2.6.1 Gradient of a Tensor Field .........................................................32 MC:Tinder FM_Page ix - 12/28/2007, 10:39AM Achorn International x TeNSoR PRoPeRTIeS oF SolIdS 2.6.2 Divergence of a Tensor Field .....................................................33 2.6.3 Kronecker Delta, Permutation Tensor, Vector Cross Product, and Tensorial Contraction .........................................................33 3. Crystal Systems, Symmetry Elements, and Symmetry Transformations ........................................................................................37 3.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................37 3.2 Macroscopic Crystal Symmetry and Symmetry Transformations .........38 3.2.1 Permissible Rotations ................................................................38 3.2.2 Center of Symmetry .................................................................38 3.3 Space Lattices, Unit Cells, Crystallographic Planes, and Directions—Miller Indices ...................................................................41 3.4 The Macroscopic Symmetry of Crystals and the 32 Conventional Point Groups .........................................................................................46 3.5 Neumann’s Principle and Its Application to Tensor Properties .............46 3.6 Application of Neumann’s Principle to Symmetrical Second-Rank Property Tensors ...................................................................................52 3.7 Effect of Neumann’s Principle on the 11 Centrosymmetrical Crystal Classes ......................................................................................56 3.8 Longitudinal and Transverse Effects for Symmetrical Second-Rank Property Tensors ...................................................................................57 4. Generalized Thermostatics and the Systematic Correlation of Physical Properties ............................................................................................61 4.1 Energy Representations and the Criteria for Thermodynamic Equilibrium ...........................................................................................61 4.1.1 Energy Density Representation ................................................64 4.2 Thermodynamic Definition of Parameters ...........................................65 4.3 Generalized Compliance and Rigidity Matrices ...................................68 4.4 Symmetry of the General Compliance and Rigidity Matrices ..............71 4.5 Systematic Enumeration and Correlation of First-Order Tensor Properties—Generalized Maxwell Relations ........................................74 4.5.1 Principal Effects ........................................................................74 4.5.2 Independent Coupled Effects ...................................................75 4.6 Effect of Measurement Conditions on the First-Order Tensor Properties ...............................................................78 5. The Dependent Coupled Effects and the Interrelationships Between First-Order Tensor Properties—Use of Interaction Diagrams ..........................85 5.1 The Dependent Coupled Effects ..........................................................85 MC:Tinder FM_Page x - 12/28/2007, 10:39AM Achorn International
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