Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching

106 Pages·2000·39.499 MB·

by  Diane Larsen-Freeman

Diane Larsen-Freeman
SECOND EDITION
1/1//1
Techniques
and Principles
in Language
Teaching
DIANE LARSEN-FREEMAN
Second Edition
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY I'RESS
OXFORD
UN1"~"SlTYI'R"ss
Gr.a'CJar.~don511""',OxfordOUGoP
Series Editors' Preface
OxfordUn;wNiryPr." i.adepartmentorlb.UnlV<'rsityofOxlord.
Ittimhe..til<'Vow.nity",ol>jeetiveof".nolloncein""search,'<hoL'rship.
and.dUL"allonbyptlbJ;.hlnllworldwidein
Oxford NewYork
Auckland IIolljl"kok Rnono,Aire, CapeTown Chenna;
Dare.SaLlaln Delhi Hon,o;KonglSlanblll Kara.'hi Kolka!.
Kn?laLlI":pur Madrid Melbourne MexicoCity Mumbaj
Nalrob, SaoPaulo Shaugh.i Thil"'i Tokyo Toronto
It is always a feeling of great pride for general editors of a pedagogical
<lHORD.ndOXF""OENGLlSn.reTew'tetedtrademark'of
OxfordUniversityrr...jntheUK.ndin«'t't<1inothercOllnttie. series when the resounding success of one of its books leads to the
(>OxfordUniversityp",ss2000
demand for publication of a second, expandededition.Wearctherefore
Themoralright'ofth••uthorhawb.en.ss.rte<!
DatabaserightOxfordUniversityPressIm.kerl extremely pleased that Diane Larsen-Freeman has undertaken to con
Fi"'tpublished0<>00 tribute to the field of language-teaching professionals a newly revised,
z<>08 2007 ,006 2O(l5 2004
'" updated, and enlarged version of her original and immensely valuable
Nounauthorizedphotocopying Techniques and Principlesin Language Teaching.The waysinwhich the
t\llrightsn".rwd.Nopanof'hi'publicationmaybe"'prodnced,
second editiondiffersfromthefirst- from theadditionof new methods,
storodIn•J'('tr.e'val'Y'~em,o~trammitled.in.nyConnorbyanytne,n"
wltbnlllthepnorperm,,,wnIIIwnlingo[OxfordUniversityPre" through moreattentiontothelearningprocess,to a littleself-indulgence
or.,e"pn'~'lypern'illodbylaw,orunderte",,,,greedwitbthe"~proPI'Ia'"
rep,,?8r.pb'csnghtsorg'm"llon.Enqllirie.(."ncerningreproouetion in methodological choice-arc amply documented in Diane's own mes
"",P<'
out"detbe oftbe.b<>ve.houldbe,enttotheHTRigbll Depall",ent. sage 'To the Teacher Educator', and these arc departures that are both
Ox/urdlInlvermyPre...atthe"ddre" above
YOIImustnotdn"l.tethisbookin'myothorhindingorcovor appropriate and illuminating. What has not changed, however- and
andyentn,,,tIntpo.ethl"Jmeconditionononyacquin'r
modesty would prevent her from saying so-arethe intangiblequalities
Anyweb.lte,I'('l,'~'0inthi,pllblk"r!onOr<'in,h.pnhlicdom.lnand
theiraddre"e.,'1'('providedbyOxfordUniversityPr<-"[orintbnn.tiononly, that made thefirst edition sospecial:enlightenment without condescen
OxfordUn'VI'rsnyPr<-"d"cl'lm,.nyre,pon'ibilityforthe,.""tent sion, comprehensiveness without tedium, engagement without oversim
IS"N0194:l55748
plification. Stillevident as before isDiane's gift for being ablegently to
PrintedinChi""
leadone to examine one's own professional behavior for possibleincon
gruities between one's viewof language and the wayone teachesit.And
stillthere, even intensified,isevidenceof herserious and deeplypersonal
thought devoted to complex pedagogical issues and her incomparable
ability to make these matters come alivewith great clarity for the widest
professional readership. Itisno mean accomplishment.
RussellN. Campbell
William E.Rutherford
Contents
To myparents, Elaineand Randolph Larsen, Acknowledgments vn
with heartfelt gratitude for their loveand
TotheTeacherEducator
encouragement
1 Introduction
2 TheGrammar-TranslationMethod 11
3 TheDirect Method 23
4 TheAudio-LingualMethod 35
5 TheSilent Way 53
6 Dcsuggcsropedia 73
7 Community LanguageLearning 89
8 Total PhysicalResponse 107
9 CommunicativeLanguageTeaching 121
10 Conrenr-bascd,Task-based,and Participatory
Approaches 137
11 LearningStrategyTraining,CooperativeLearning,
and MultipleIntelligences 159
12 Conclusion 177
Appendix 191
Acknowledgments
Imust begin bythanking the readersof thefirsteditionof this book.Your
receptiveness has enabled me to publish this updated second edition. In
addition,ithas beena joyto interactwith you.
The approach I have used in this book is based on myexperience in
teaching the methods/approachescourse at theSchool for International
Training.This book would not have been written in the first place if it
were not for theinfluenceofmy colleaguesand studentsthere.Iam very
gratefulto themall.In particular.forthissecondedition,Imustsingleout
Carolyn Nims, who went out of her way to give me comments based
upon her experience in using the book in a reacher education program.
Debra Blake and Bill Conley were also kind enough to read portions of
this manuscript andoffercomments.
Thisbook hasalsobenefittedfrom the factthatleadingmethodologists
have generouslyresponded to my requestforfeedback on portionsofthis
manuscript. I am indebted to Earl Stevick (To the Teacher Educator],
Shakti Gattegno of Educational Solutions Inc. (Silent Way), Georgi
Lozanov,Alison Miller,andTctsuo Nishizawa (Desuggestopcdia},Jenny
belleRardin and Pat Tirone ofCounseling-Learning lnstirurcs(Commu
nity Language Learning), James Asher (Total Physical Response],
MarjorieWesche(content-based instruction),and Elsa Auerbach(partie
iparory approach). Their comments made me feel more confident that I
have inrcrprcred the methodologists' intent. I am also grateful for the
comments of Ruth Wajnryb of LARA Consultancy in Australia, and
Joann Crandall. Any remaining errors of interpretation are, of course,
fullymyresponsibility,
For the initial faith they showed and for their continued encourage
mentandhelpfulsuggesrions.!acknowledge withgratitude theeditorsof
thisseries, Russell Campbelland William Rutherford.
It hasalso beena pleasure working withthe editors at Oxford Univer
sit)'Press.first Anne Conybeareand thenJulia Sallabank.
Finally,ImustexpressmyJeepappreciationto myspouse. Elliott,who
has.asalways. givenme hissupport throughoutthisproject.
Diane Larsen-Freeman
To the Teacher Educator
ON LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS AND THEIR USE
IN TEACHER EDUCATION
Astudyof methodsisinvaluableinteacher education inat leastfiveways:
1 Methods serveasa foilfor reflection that can aidteachers in bringing
to conscious awareness the thinking that underlies their actions. We
know that teachers come to teacher training with ideas about the
teaching/learningprocessformedfromtheyearstheyhave spentasstu
dentsthemselves (I.ortie 1975). Amajor purpose of teacher education
is to help teachers make the tacit explicit (Shulman 1987; Freeman
1991).When teachersarc exposed to methods and asked to reflect on
their principles and actively engage with their techniques, they can
becomeclearer about whytheydo what theydo. They become aware
oftheirown fundamentalassumptions, values, and beliefs.
2 By becoming clear on where theystand, teachers can choose to teach
differently from the way they were taught. They are able to see why
they are attracted to certain methodsand repelled by others. They arc
able to makechoicesthat arc informed, notconditioned.Theymay be
able to resist, or at least argue against, the imposition of a particular
method by authorities. In other situations, where a method is not
imposed, methods offer teachers alternatives to what they currently
thinkand do.Itdoesnotnecessarilyfollowthatteacherswillchooseto
modify their current practice. The point is that they will have the
understandingtodo so, iftheyare ableto and wantto.
3 A knowledge of methods is part of the knowledge base of teaching.
With it,teachers joinacommunityofpractice(Freeman 1(92).Beinga
community memberentailslearningtheprofessionaldiscoursethatcorn
munitymembers use so that professionaldialog can take place. Being
partof adiscoursecommunityconfersa professionalidentity andcon
nects teacherswith others so they are not so isolated in their practice.
4 Aprofessionaldiscoursecommunity may alsochallengeteachers'con
ceptions of how teaching leads to learning. Interacting with others'
To theTeacher Educator TotheTeacher Educator XI
X
conceptionsofpracticehelpskeepteachers'teachingalive-helpspre pensare forinadequateconditions of learning or overcome sociopolitical
ventitfrom becomingstaleandoverlyroutinized(Prabhu 1990), inequities.Inaddition, decisionsthatteachers makeareoften affected by
exigencies in the classroom rather than by methodological considera
5 Aknowledge ofmethods helps expand a teacher's repertoire of tech
tions,Sayingthata particularmethod ispracticedcertainlydocsnot give
niques. This in itself provides an additional avenue for professional
us the whole picture of what ishappening in the classroom. Then, too,
growth. as some teachers find their way to new philosophical posi
sincea method ismore abstract than a teachingactivity. it isnot surpris
tions. not hyfirstentertainingnewprinciples. but rather bytryingout
ing that teachers think in termsofactivities rather than methodological
new techniques. Moreover. effective teachers who arc more experi
choiceswhentheyplan their lessons.
enced and expert have a large, diverse repertoire of best practices
Thus whileIunderstand thecriticisms,Ido not believethat astudyof
(Arends 1998), which presumably helps them deal more effectively
language teaching methods should be excluded from language teacher
,v-irhthe uniquequalitiesandidiosyncrasiesoftheirstudents.
education. It is not methods, but how they are used that is at issue. A
Despite thesepotentialgainsfrom a studyof methods, it isImportant to studyof methods need not lead to the de-skilling ofteachers but rather
acknowledgethatsincethepublicationofthefirstedition ofthishook in canserveavarietyofusefulfunctionswhen usedappropriatelyinteacher
1986, anumberof writersinour field havecriticized theconcept of lan education. It can help teachers articulate, and perhaps transform, their
guage teaching methods. Some say rhar methods are prescriptions for understanding of the teaching/learning process. Methods can serve as
classroom behavior,and that teachers arcencouraged bytextbook pub modelsofthe integrationoftheory(theprinciples)and practice (thetech
lishersandacademicsto implement themwhetherornot the methodsare niques).Their study can encourage continuing education in the lifelong
appropriate for a particular context (Pcrmycook 1989; Richards 1990; process of learning to teach (Larsen-Freeman 1998). Teachers and
Holliday 1994).Others havenotedthatthesearchfor the best method is teacher educatorsshouldnot beblindedbythecriticismsofmethodsand
ill-advised (Prabhu 1990; Bartolome 1994), that teachers do not think thus fait to see their invaluable contribution to teacher education and
about methods when planning their lessons (Long 1991), and that continuing development. Key to doing so, though. is moving beyond
methodologicallabelsrclluslittleaboutwhatreallyoccursinclassrooms ideology to inquiry, a movement to which I hope this book will con
(Allwright 1988;Katz 1996). tribute.
These criticisms have made me stop and think. 1suppose it is true, I
thought, that a particular methodcall beimposed onteachers byothers.
CHANGES IN THE SECOND EDITION
However,theseothersarclikelytobedisappointediftheyhopethat man
dating a particular method will lead to standardization. For we know Inaddition to somemodest updating ofall themethodspresented inthe
thatteachingismore than followinga recipe.Anymethod isgoingto be firstedition, Chapter6has undergone asubstantialrevisiontoreflectthe
shapedbyateacher'sown understanding.beliefs,style,and levelofexpe evolution ofSuggesropedia (first edition)to Desuggestopedia in thisedi
rience.Teachersarenot mereconveyor beltsdeliveringlanguagethrough tion. Further,the Introduction (Chapter 1)hasbeenexpanded. Contrary
inflexibleprescribed and proscribed behaviors (Larsen-Freeman 1991); to those who fear that a method will be imposed on practitioners, my
theyare professionalswhocan, inthebestofallworlds, maketheirown experienceasateachereducator isrharthechallengeliesingettingteach
decisions.Theyarc informed bytheir own experience.thefindings from ers to leave behind teaching as theywere taught and become aware of,
research,and thewisdom of practice accumulated bytheprofession (sec, and open to, alternatives. I therefore welcome the opportunity that the
forexample,Kumaruvadivc!u1994). expanded chapter has given me to elaborate on one way that openness
Furthermore. a method is deconrcxrualizcd. How a method is imple canbeencouraged.
mented in the classroom is going to he affected not only by who the Anotherchangeistheinclusionofmethodsthathavecome into promi
reacher is.butalsobywhothestudentsare,theirand theteacher'scxpcc nencesincethefirsteditionof thisbook.Inorderto keep thisbook from
rations of appropriate social roles. the institutional constraints and becomingroolong,Ihavegroupedanumberof methodsintwochapters.
demands. and factors connected to the wider sociocultural context in In addition to considerations of length, I have justified this decision
whichtheinstruction takesplace. Eventhe'right' method willnot com- because ir seems these methods have in common the views that first,
XII To theTeacherEducator To theTeacherEducator Xlll
languagecan best be learned when iristaught through communication, withmany faces' bothto make(hecase forcorircnr-bascd instruction asa
rather than for it (Chapter to,on content-based, task-based, and partici method of language teaching, and capture the great variety of forms
(0
parory approaches), and second, that language acquisition can be andsettingsinwhichitrakesplace.Kumaravadivelu (1993)observesthat
enhanced hy working nor only on language, bur also on the process of thererm'(ask' isoften used withreference bothcontentand mcrhodol
(Q
learning (Chapter It, on learning strategies, cooperative learning, and ogy oflanguage (caching.Indeed,within thestrong version of acommu
multiple intelligences). nicative approach (Howatt 1984), (he traditionalseparationofsyllabus
A further substantial modification is that the epilogue ofthe first edi designand methodologyis blurred. Ifstudents learn communicate by
(Q
tion hasgrowninro a fullchapterof itsown (Chapter 12)in (hissecond communicating(Breen 1984). (hen(hedestination and the route become
edition. Readers of the first edition have rold me that they wished that J one and the same (Nunan 1989). finally.if we apply the definition of a
had concluded with a more explicit evaluation and comparison of the method weare using inthisbook,'A method isacoherentsetofthought
methods. Ichose nottodo so in thefirsteditionofthisbook.as Iam not in-actionlinks,' then the three rightfullybelong.
of the opinion that (he purpose of learning about methods is so one can Some might also question whether the three arc distinctive enough to
adopt the right one, or that I could choose for others which one that betreated separately. For example. Skehan (1998) makes the point that
would be. However,in this second edition, Ihave responded to readers' one could regard much content-based instruction (as well as project
requests by providing a summary chan of the methodsdiscussed in this work, which we will also briefly consider in Chapter 10) as particular
book, and by so doing, highlighting their major differences. Ihave also examplesofatask-basedapproach.And othershave suggestedthat task
used theopportunitythata fullfinalchapterpresentsto indulgemyselfin based and participatoryapproachesare a form ofcontent-based instruc
sharing with readers my views on making informed methodological tion.lnanycase, althoughitshould beacknowledged thatthese methods
choices. arc unified by (he assumption rhat students learn communicate by
(Q
A word about nomenclature is also in order. I am using (he term communicating, (heir scope and their particular foci seem distinctive
'method' herenor to mean aformulaicprescription,hutratheracoherent enough warrantindependenttreatment.
(0
set of links between principles and certain techniques and procedures. Finally,although Ihave made every effort toward a faithfulrendering
Anthony (1963)hasmade thecase fora tripartite hierarchy.Asheput it: ofeach method and methodologicalinnovation, (here will undoubtedly
, ... techniquescarry outa method whichisconsistentwithanapproach' bethose who would not totally accept my rendition.This is understand
(p.64). Following Amhony, incertainofthechapters,Jwillintroduce a able and probablyinevitable. My description is, as it must be,a product
particular method by showing how it is an example of a more general ofmyownexperience.
approach ro language teaching. However, not all methods discussed in It ismysincere hope (hat this book will both inform and stimulate its
this book conveniently follow from a general approach. They all do, readers and that it will encourage them to reflect, inquire, and experi
though, have both a conceptual and an operational component, fining ment. Ifitmeetsthesegoals,thenirmay help to restorefaithinthe appro
thedefinition in Richardsetal.(1992):Dictionaryof LanguageTeaching priate useof reaching methodsin languagereacher education.
& Applied Linguistics (a method is'a way of teachinga language which
Brattleboro, Vermollt Diane Larsen-Freeman
isbased onsystematicprinciples and procedures'),and justifying myuse
oftheterm.Admittedly,Isometimeshavefound itdifficult tousetheterm
'method' with more recent innovations, such as conrenr-based insrruc REFERENCES
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Allwright, Dick. 1988. Observation ill the Classroom. London: Long
'methodologicalinnovations.'
nun.
Even so, somelanguageeducators mightobject to theinclusion ofcon
Anthony, Edward. 1963. 'Approach, method, and technique.' Ellglish
rent-based,task-based,and participatoryapproachesina methodsbook,
Language Teaching Jailmal 17: 6]-7 reprinted in Allen, H. and R.
for they might be more comfortablecalling these syllabus types. Never
Campbell (cds.): Teaching ~llglish as ,1 Second Language. (2nd edn.)
rhclcss, others fecithat a method designation isveryappropriate. Snow
1972. New York:~1cGraw·Hill.
(1991),for instance,characterizescontent-based instructionasa'method
XIV TotheTeacherEducator To theTeacherEducator xv
Arends,Richard. 1998.I.eamingtoTeach.(4thcdn.)NewYork:Mctiraw Lortie,Dan. 1975.Schoolteacher:A SociologicalStud)'.Chicago:Univer
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Breen,Michael. 1984.'Process syllabuses for the languageclassroom' in Pcnnycook, Alastair. 1989. 'The concept of method, interested knowl
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Syllabus Designfor the General Englisb Classroom (EfL Documents 591-615.
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emerging discourse and conceptions of teaching.' Teaching and Richards.jack.1990.TheLanguageTeachingMatrix.Cambridge:Cam
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Freeman, Donald. 1992. 'Language teacher education, emerging dis Shulman, Lee. 1987. 'Knowledge-base and teaching: Foundations ofthe
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and S. Hsia (cds.): Perspectives on Second Language Teacher Educa Skehan, Peter. 1998.'Task-based instruction.'AnnualReview ofApplied
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Holliday, Adrian. 1994. Appropriate Metbodoiogy and Social Context. Snow, Marguerite Ann. 1991. 'Content-based instruction: A method
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Howatt,A.P.R. 1984.AJ-listoryofenglish Language Teaching.Oxford: Table 011 Languages and linguistics. Washington, DC: Georgetown
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Kumaravadivclu,B. 1993.'The nameof thetaskand thetaskofnaming:
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1
Introduction
GOALS OF THIS BOOK
Oneof thegoalsof thisbook isfor you to learn aboutmany different lan
guage teaching methods. Iwill use the term 'language teaching method'
to meana coherentset oflinksbetweenactions and thoughts in language
teaching.The actions are the techniques and the thoughtsare the princi
ples in the title of this book: Techniques and Principles in Language
Teaching.
Asecondgoalisto help you uncover thethoughts thatguide yourown
actions as a teacher. They may not be ones of which you arc aware.
Seeking to determine which principles of the methods you read about
here are most [disjharmonious with your own thinking will help you to
uncoversomeof your implicit thoughts and beliefsaboutreaching.
A third goal is to introduce you to a variety of techniques, some of
whichwillbenew. Althoughcertaintechniquesmayrequirefurthertrain
ing, orhers can beimmediatelyimplemented.Feelfree to experimentand
adapt those techniques to your teachingcontext.
THOUGHT-iN-ACTION LINKS
It is important to recognize that methods link thoughts and actions
becauseteachingisnotentirelyaboutoneortheother. Ofcoursethisisas
true about your own teaching as it is about any method you will read
about in this book.As a teacher oflanguage, you have rhoughts' about
your subject matter-what languageis, whatculture is- and about your
students-whothey are as learnersand howitisthey learn.Youalso have
thoughts nbour yourself as a teacher and what youcan do to help your
students learn. lt is very important for you to become aware of the
thoughts that guide your actions in the classroom. With this awareness,
you willbeableto examinewhy you do what you do and perhapschoose
to think about or do things differently.
IIwilluscthe term lllOlIghl>forthesakeofsimplicity;howl'vrr, Imean forthoughtstoinrllll.le
helief" ;ltt;tllde" v.,I1,es,and awarene"aswell.