Tea : cultivation to consumption

779 Pages·2013·88.954 MB·English

Tea
Tea
Cultivation to consumption
Edited by
K. C. Willson
Consultant in Tropical Agriculture,
Department of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology,
University of Liverpool
and
M. N. Clifford
Leader, Food Safety Research Group,
School of Biological Sciences,
University of Surrey
I~ 111
Sprtnger-Sclence+Buslness Media, B.V.
First edition 1992
© 1992 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
OriginaUy published by Chapman & HaU in 1992
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover lst edition 1992
Typeset in 10/12 point Palatino by
J&L Composition Ud, Filey, North Yorkshire
TSBN 978-94-01 0-5027-2 o 442 231419 l(USA)
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The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publieation Data
Tea: cultivation to consumption I edited by K. C. Willson and M. N.
Clifford. - lst ed.
p. em.
Includes bibliographical referenees and index.
ISBN 978-94-010-5027-2 ISBN 978-94-011-2326-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-011-2326-6
1. Tea. 2. Tea trade. 1. Willson, K. C. (Ken c.) II. Clifford,
M. N. (Michael N.)
SB271.T27 1991
641.3'372-dc20 91-22774
CIP
Contents
Colour plate section between pages 300 and 301
List of contributors
XlI
Foreword by H. Ferguson
XVll
Acknowledgements
XIX
Preface xx
1 Historical Introduction
J. Weatherstone
1.1 China - 2000 years of tea 1
1.2 The discovery of the tea plant in north-east India 6
1.3 A river journey of a thousand miles 8
1.4 The way forward - the introduction of the plantation system 11
1.5 The first Indian tea 14
1.6 Tea in Ceylon: planted in the ashes of the coffee bushes 17
1.7 Early pioneering by the Dutch 20
1.8 Conclusion 22
Bibliography 23
2 Botanical classification of tea
B. Banerjee
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Problems in tea taxonomy 25
2.3 Features of taxonomic importance 27
2.4 The tea varieties 30
2.5 The true tea species 33
2.6 The 'non-tea' teas 37
2.7 Key to species and sub-species 39
2.8 Tea hybrids and the genetic pool 39
2.9 Hybrid differentiation 41
2.10 Tea germplasm and wild tea 46
2.11 Future thrust 47
References 48
VI Contents
3 Selection and breeding of tea
B. Banerjee
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 The selection process 54
3.3 Selection criteria for yield 55
3.4 Selection for quality 60
3.5 Selection for seed varieties 62
3.6 Vegetative propagation 66
3.7 Hybridization 70
3.8 Clonal seed variety 72
3.9 Interspecific hybridization 73
3.10 Inheritance 74
3.11 Non-conventional breeding 75
3.12 Breeding strategies 77
3.13 Conclusion: the future trend 79
References 81
4 Climate, weather and the yield of tea
M. K. V. Carr and W. Stephens
4.1 Introduction 87
4.2 Growth processes: a basis for comparison 88
4.3 Climatic variables 94
4.4 Commercial yields: case studies in Eastern Africa 115
4.5 Conclusions 130
Acknowledgements 131
References 132
5 Soils
C. O. Othieno
5.1 Introduction 137
5.2 Formation and types of tea soils 137
5.3 Classification of tea soils 140
5.4 Identification through indigenous vegetation 141
5.5 Chemical properties 141
5.6 Physical properties 155
5.7 Biological properties 161
5.8 Management of tea soils 163
5.9 Uprooted and replanted tea land 168
References 170
6 Tea crop physiology
T. W. Tanton
6.1 Introduction 173
6.2 Crop development and components of yield 174
Contents
Vll
6.3 The relationship between photosynthesis and yield 180
6.4 Dormancy in shoots 183
6.5 Effect of temperature on shoot growth 185
6.6 Effect of dry air on shoot growth 190
6.7 Effect of day length on shoot growth 194
References 197
7 Field operations: 1
K. C. Willson
7.1 Choice of site 201
7.2 Land clearance and preparation 202
7.3 Erosion control and drains 202
7.4 Provenance of plants 208
7.5 Tea seed production 209
7.6 Propagation 209
7.7 Field spacing 217
7.8 Field planting 218
7.9 Infilling and interplanting 219
7.10 Shade and shelter 220
7.11 Weed control 221
7.12 Irrigation 222
7.13 Hail 222
References 223
8 Field operations: 2
K. C. Willson
8.1 Bringing into bearing and pruning 227
8.2 Rejuvenation of old plantations 239
8.3 Harvesting 241
8.4 Mechanization of field operations 249
8.5 Fuelwood and diversification 259
8.6 Other products from tea 261
References 263
9 Mineral nutrition and fertilizers
D. Bonheure and K. C. Willson
9.1 Introduction 269
9.2 Loss of nutrients 269
9.3 Outline of nutrition 270
9.4 Effects of individual nutrients 271
9.5 Organic fertilizers 290
9.6 Foliar analysis 296
9.7 Practical fertilization 304
Vl11 Contents
9.8 Symptoms of nutrient deficiency and toxicity 311
9.9 Use of growth regulating chemicals 318
9.10 The effect of fertilizers on tea quality 319
References 321
10 Pest and disease control in Africa
P. S. Rattan
10.1 Introduction 331
10.2 Pests and their control 331
10.3 Diseases and their control 341
10.4 Pesticides and their application 350
References 350
11 Disease control in Asia
P. V. Arulpragasam
11.1 Introduction 353
11.2 Effects of diseases on tea production 353
11.3 Disease management in tea 355
11.4 Common diseases of tea 360
References 373
12 Pest control in Asia
N. Muraleedharan
12.1 Introduction 375
12.2 Crop loss 375
12.3 Important pests 376
12.4 Ecology of pests 397
12.5 Pest management 403
12.6 Future strategies 408
References 408
13 Green and semi-fermented teas
T. Takeo
13.1 Introduction to green tea production 413
13.2 A brief history of the production of shade grown green
teas-Ten-cha, Gyokuro and Ceremony tea (Matsu-cha) 414
13.3 The cultivation and production of steamed, unshaded
green tea (Sen-cha) 417
13.4 The production of pan-fried green tea (Chinese green
tea, Kamairi-cha) 423
13.5 The character of green tea 423
13.6 Semi-fermented tea (oolong tea) 443
References 454
Contents
IX
14 Production of black tea
M. G. Hampton
14.1 Introduction 459
14.2 Raw materials and products 461
14.3 Principal stages of processing 463
14.4 Process engineering considerations 463
14.5 Air utilization in tea manufacture 467
14.6 The withering stage 478
14.7 Leaf disruption 481
14.8 Fermentation 490
14.9 The drying operation 494
14.10 Sorting and fibre removal 500
14.11 Fuel and power 503
14.12 Packing and transport of tea 509
References and further reading 510
15 Speciality and herbal teas
M. J. E. Gill
15.1 Speciality teas 513
15.2 Herbal teas 518
15.3 Specific origin of camellia tea 519
15.4 Specific occasion teas 522
15.5 China tea 522
15.6 Flavoured teas 523
15.7 Teas with historical associations 524
15.8 Packaging format 524
15.9 Decaffeinated tea 525
15.10 Organically grown tea 527
15.11 The future 528
Appendix 15.1 Grades of black tea 529
Appendix 15.2 Types of tea 530
Appendix 15.3 Herbal teas and their benefits 533
16 Instant tea
M. Saltmarsh
16.1 Introduction 535
16.2 The production of instant black tea 536
References 551
Patents 553
x Contents
17 The chemistry and biochemistry of black tea production-the
non-volatiles
A. Robertson
17.1 Introduction 555
17.2 Green leaf polyphenols 555
17.3 Polyphenoloxidase 563
17.4 Black tea polyphenols 564
References 597
18 Tea aroma
J. M. Robinson and P. O. Owuor
18.1 Introduction 603
18.2 Biogenetic pathways of the aroma compounds in tea 627
18.3 Changes in the composition of the aroma complex due
to agronomic, cultural and manufacturing practices 634
18.4 Use of the aroma complex in chemotaxonomy 638
References 639
19 The world trade in tea
R. van de Meeberg
19.1 Introduction 649
19.2 History 650
19.3 The International Tea Committee and the distribution of
world tea supplies 660
19.4 Prices and auctions 661
19.5 Delivery of tea and payment of accounts 665
19.6 Distribution 666
19.7 Production, consumption and promotion 668
19.8 The future 670
19.9 Alternative packaging for bulk tea 672
19.10 FAG Meeting, May 1989 674
19.11 Instant tea 676
19.12 Comment on 1989 data 676
19.13 Update July 1990 680
19.14 Postscript September 1990 682
19.15 World production and exports of green tea 685
19.16 Provisional data for 1990 685
References 686
20 Impurities, quality standards and legislation
R. van de Meeberg
20.1 Impurities 689
20.2 Standards 692
20.3 Legislation 698
References 705
Contents Xl
21 Physiological and clinical effects of tea
V. Marks
21.1 Introduction 707
21.2 Water 707
21.3 Tea as a beverage 709
21.4 Caffeine 712
21.5 Polyphenols 729
21.6 Coronary heart disease and serum cholesterol 731
21.7 Tea and the gut 732
21.8 Trace elements and vitamins 733
21. 9 Herbal 'teas' 733
21.10 Conclusions 733
References 734
Glossary 741
Index 751