T. Wingate Todd: Pioneer of Modern American Physical Anthropology

2006·34.8 MB·English

by  Kevin F Kern

KIRTLANDIA
The Cleveland Museum of Natural History
September2006 Number 55:1-42
T. WINGATE TODD: PIONEER OF MODERN AMERICAN
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
KEVINF. KERN
DepartmentofHistory
TheUniversityofAkron,Akron, Ohio44325-190
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
T. Wingate Todd’s role in the development ofmodern American physical anthropology was
considerablymorecomplexandprofoundthanhistorianshavepreviouslyrecognized.Afactorof
theidiosyncrasiesofhislifeandresearch,thisrelativeneglectofToddissymptomaticofalarger
underappreciation ofthe field’s professional and intellectual development in the early twentieth
century. A complete examination of Todd’s life reveals that he played a crucial role in the
discipline’sevolution. Onascholarlylevel,hispeersrecognizedhimasoneofthemostimportant
meninthefieldandrarelychallengedhisvoluminouswrittenoutput,whichcomprisedasignificant
portionoftheperiod’sliterature. Onatheoreticallevel,Toddlednearlyallofhiscontemporaries
in the eventual turn the field made away from the ethnic focus of its racialist roots and the
biological determinism of the eugenics movement. Furthermore, he anticipated the profound
theoretical andmethodologicalchangesthateventuallyputphysicalanthropologyonitspresent
scientificfooting. Hisresearchcollectionsarethelargestoftheirkindintheworld,andstillquite
activelyusedbycontemporaryresearchers.ManyofTodd’spublicationsfromasearlyasthe1920s
(especiallythoseconcerningagechanges, growth, anddevelopment)arestillconsideredstandard
worksinafieldthatchangeddramaticallyafterhisdeath. Thisatteststo the fact that hewasin
manyrespectsaheadofhistime,andoneofthemostsignificantfiguresinthehistoryofAmerican
physicalanthropology.
Introduction and Historiography theliteratureonthehistoryofthefield,thisissueofAJPAatthe
In honor ofits fiftieth anniversary on 11 and 12 December same time exemplifies the neglect oftwo significant aspects of
1980, the American Association of Physical Anthropologists Americanphysicalanthropology’spast:first,neglectofthefield’s
(AAPA)hostedaspecialsymposiumonthehistoryofAmerican early twentieth-century history, and second, neglect ofthe role
physical anthropology at its birthplace of Charlottesville, andworkofT.WingateTodd.
Virginia. The papers presented at this symposium, combined Physical anthropologycompleted theprocess ofprofessional-
with several others given at the plenary session ofthe fiftieth ization during this period, complete with its own journals,
annual AAPA meeting in Detroit, became the bulk of the university-level academic programs, and scientific community.
AmericanJournalofPhysicalAnthropology's(AJPA)jubileeissue Thefieldalsobeganthetransformationfromitspseudo-scientific
in 1981. This invaluable resource in the history of the field nineteenth-centurypasttoamodernfieldofinquirysupportedby
containsnumerousarticlesonvarioustopicsandbriefbiograph- truly scientific methods and theory. Standing among these
ical sketches of several important early figures, including T. changeswasthelifeandworkofThomasWingateTodd, M.B.,
WingateTodd(Figure 1).However,apartfromthispiece(Cobb, Ch.B.,F.R.C.S.Evenwithinthefield,Todddrawsscantattention
1981), andanarticlebyFrankSpencerontheriseofacademic todaycomparedtotheothergiantsofhisera,Columbia’sFranz
physicalanthropologyintheUnitedStates(Spencer,1981),Todd Boas, Harvard’s Earnest Hooton, and the father of modern
appearsvirtuallynowhereelseinthevolume.Evenin—thearticles American physical anthropology, the Smithsonian’s Ales
thatpertainmostdirectlytotheareasToddpioneered ahistory Hrdlicka. Inhistime,however, Todd’speers recognizedhimas
ofgrowthstudies(Garn—, 1981)andahistoryofstudiesinhuman oneofthemostsignificantmeninthediscipline,andhispublished
plasticity(Hulse,1981) Todd’snameisentirelyabsent,although worksarguablyremainmoredurablethaneventhoseofHrdlicka
theauthorsgivewell-deservedattentiontohissuccessorsWilton and Hooton. This paper strives to redress previous historical
KrogmanandWilliamGreulich. Indeed,onalargerscale,most oversight ofT. Wingate Todd, appraise his long-term scientific
oftheissue’svariousauthorsconcentrateprimarilyorexclusively and professional significance, and discuss why he is not more
ondevelopmentsofthepost-1940period.Animportantpiecein widelyrecognizedtoday.
KERN No. 55
Figure1.T.WingateTodd,phototakenlateinlife.(PhotocourtesyoftheDittrickMuseumofMedicalHistory.)
In accordance with the minimal historical treatment ofearly and peers. A much smaller, second group consists of several
twentieth-centuryphysicalanthropology,relativelylittlehasbeen descriptionsofToddandhisactivitieswrittenbypeopleoutside
writtenonthemajorfiguresofthefieldfromapproximately1900 ofhisfield.AlthoughallmakenoteofTodd’stremendousenergy
to 1940 (with the major exception of those involved in the andthevolumeofhiswork,thereareoftensharpdistinctionsin
infamousPiltdowncontroversy,seeSpencer, 1990,forexample). tonebetweenthesegroupsregardingTodd’spersonality.
AlesHrdlicka,ArthurKeith,andEarnestHootonhavereceived Works in the first group are generally glowing (even
some serious historical treatment, but beyond these men, hagiographic)treatmentsofhislifeandworkthatarerelatively
researchershavepaidconsiderablylessattentiontoanyoneelse. indistinguishableintoneregardlessofthetimetheywerewritten
Several factors have contributed to this relative oversight. The (generallyfrom 1939to 1981).Thesenoticesandmemorialsnot
fieldwasfairlysmall,commandingfewprofessionalworkersand onlybearwitnesstothetremendousamountofhiswork,butalso
littleinstitutionalrecognition.Increasinglyovershadowedbythe itswidescope.Toddreceivedobituariesinnumerousjournalsin
steady growth ofcultural anthropological studies under Franz the fields of medicine, dentistry, anthropology, growth and
Boas and his students, institutional physical anthropology was development,anatomy,physiology,andsurgery(seeforexample,
alsolargelygeographicallylimitedtoaBoston,NewYork, and Cobb, 1939; Keith, 1939a-c; Krogman, 1939a; Macklin, 1939;
WashingtonD.C.axisofcitiesontheEastCoast.However,past Shapiro, 1939). Some ofthese appeared many years after his
historicalneglectrelativetoearlierandlaterperiodsisironic,as death, highlighting items ofhis oeuvre that were ofparticular
the transition of physical anthropology into its modern form concerntothefieldinquestion(see,forexample,Krogman,1951;
occurred precisely at this time. Many people in addition to Cobb,1959,1981).Allspeakofthegreatimportanceofhiswork,
Hooton and Hrdlicka aided in this process, and Todd was especiallytheexpansionoftheHamann-Toddcollectionandthe
acentralfigurethroughout. Brush Foundation research. Although his personality is some-
Apartfromseveralshortpiecesofapopularnature(Gottlieb, timesdescribedusingsuchadjectivesas“forceful,”thereisrarely
1982;Wood, 1983;Bailey, 1992;Jones-KernandLatimer, 1996), anything but appreciative comment made on his private or
publishedmaterialonToddfallsintotwofairlydistinctgroups. professionallife.
The first and most numerous of these are the obituaries, The second group, representing items written from 1946 to
memorials, and remembranceswrittenbyhismentors, students. 1997,oftenpresentsToddinlessflatteringand/ormoremarginal
2006 T. WINGATETODD 3
terms. Frederick Waite, a fellow faculty member ofTodd’s at correspondencewaslost,andauthorshavethusbasedtheirwork
WesternReserve,wroteahistoryoftheWesternReserveMedical mostly on personal recollections or letters in other collections.
School in which he describes Todd in something less than the However, a number ofother factors also contribute to Todd’s
glowing manner reserved for almost all ofthe other professors enigmatichistoricalpresence,includingstrongpersonalopinions
and administrators he profiles. Waite accuses his colleague of ofvarious authors, failure to utilize all available information,
possessing ill-defined, but unfavorable “certain characteristics” deliberate focus on only a single aspect of Todd’s career, or
whichmanifestedthemselvesinvariousways,includingquestion- personal idiosyncrasies ofTodd himself. Although indicative of
able organizational maneuvers and “constant interference” anundue,moregeneralneglectofphysicalanthropology’searly
(Waite, 1946, p. 389, 408). The few compliments paid to the twentieth-centuryhistory,thesparse,piecemeal,andoccasionally
man areeitherimmediatelymitigated orare left-handed swipes biased nature ofTodd’s treatment in the historical literature is
suchas“[he]wasanexcellentteacherwhenhegaveattentionto also unwarranted because it fails to reflect fully his vital and
thiswork”(Waite, 1946,p.408).Perhapsthemostunkindaspect continuingimportancetothefield’shistory.
ofWaite’streatmentofTodd,however,isoneofomission. For The following pages endeavor to redress some of these
a department chair, museum curator, prolific author, and inadequacies by providing the first comprehensive published
anatomist of international reputation, Todd draws almost no biographyofTodd,anddemonstratingthecrucialroleheplayed
attention from Waite past the disputed circumstances of his inAmericanphysicalanthropology’searlydevelopment. Recog-
appointment, abareandmixedappraisalofhis tenure, andhis nizedasoneofthemostsignificantpeopleinthefieldbyhispeers,
death. By comparison, Waite gives other professors of lesser Toddwasapioneerofthediscipline’searlyscholarly,theoretical,
importancemuchmoresubstantialandfavorabletreatment(see and methodological evolution in ways that even his admiring
forexample,Waite, 1946,p. 321,346,374). colleaguescouldnotappreciatefully. Infillingthislacunainthe
Another less-than-flattering description ofTodd is found in literature,thispiecealsohopestoserveasonesmallsteptowards
Alice Smuts’ 1985 article on the National Research Council’s afullerunderstandingofAmericanphysicalanthropologyinthe
Child Development Committee, on which Todd served as early twentieth century by scholars of the early twenty-first
a member and (briefly) chairman. In this treatment, Smuts century.
portrays Todd as an autocratic and unyielding leader who
attempted to bend the Committee away from its traditional “Thebestyoungman in England”:Todd’sEarlyLife
missiontowardhisownresearchgoals.Usingthecorrespondence
and minutes ofthe Committee as her primary evidence, Smuts “Afutureinthediseasesofchildren”:Todd’syouth, 1885-
describesToddasapersonofgreattalent, butalso ofpuzzling 1903
personalityandquestionablemotivations(Smuts, 1985). Thomas Wingate Todd was born in Sheffield, England on
ElazarBarkan’sRetreatofScientificRacismhasafairlysizable January 15, 1885, the son of the Reverend James Todd and
section devoted to American physical anthropology during the KatherineWingateTodd.TheReverendTodd,sonofanengine
earlypartofthetwentiethcentury,butBarkanonlyinfrequently driver, was born and raised in Scotland and was proud ofhis
mentionsToddrelativetosuchcontemporariesasAlesHrdlicka, ancestors’resistancetotheEpiscopalChurch(Cobb,1959,p.234;
Raymond Pearl, Earnest Hooton, Franz Boas, Clark Wissler, A.Todd,personalcommunication, 19August 1996). Hetrained
CharlesDavenport,andMelvilleHerskovits.Furthermore,inthe andpracticed as a ScotsPresbyterian minister, butlaterturned
sparseattentionBarkanpaystoTodd, heiscalled “amoderate towardnonconformismandspenttherestofhisworkinglifeas
physical anthropologist, a mainliner if ever there was one” a Methodist minister (T. W. Todd, n.d.b). Katherine Wingate,
(Barkan, 1992, p. 73). Itis unclearuponwhatevidenceBarkan a physical education teacher, was the daughter ofa dry goods
basesthiscontention, but hisbookneverthelesspaintsTodd as merchantinLeedsandthesisterofSirJamesLaughtonWingate,
aconventionalistandmarginalintheanthropologicaldebateover amemberoftheRoyalAcademy(A.Todd,personalcommuni-
raceintheearly 1900s. cation, 19 August 1996). James Todd met Katherine Wingate
NotallindependentportrayalsofToddarenegative,however. while he was working in Leeds, and when the Wingate family
HumangrowthscholarJ.M.Tanner,whoinhisbookaboutthe moved to Manchester, he moved there as well (Cobb, 1959,
historyofgrowthresearchdevotesseveralpagestoTodd,bestows p.233;A.Todd, 1988,andpersonalcommunication, 19August
agreatdealofpraiseuponToddandhisimportancetothatarea 1996). JamesandKatherinemarriedinEngland, and Katherine
ofstudy. Tanner’s recognition ofTodd is more tempered than dutifullybecameaMethodistherself.(Theconversionwasoutof
thoseofsomeofhisstudents,butisnonethelessgenerallyglowing love,notconviction. ShewentbacktothePresbyterianChurch
(Tanner, 1981,p. 320-323). Similarly,FrankSpencer’sentryfor on her husband’s death [A. Todd, personal communication, 8
Todd in the Encyclopedia ofPhysicalAnthropology dispassion- June1995]).Jameswasapopularminister.Todd’sCheathamHill
atelycredits Toddwith several important and lastingcontribu- congregationinManchesteroncekepthimforsixyearsaspastor,
tions to physical anthropology. Although necessarily brief, whichwasexplicitlyagainstMethodistrulesofpastoralrotation
Spencer’spieceparticularlyemphasizesthesignificanceofTodd’s (D. Todd, personal communication, 9 September 1996). The
work with the Hamann-Todd osteological collection and his marriage,whichendedwithJames’deathin 1919,producedfour
research on age changes in the pelvis (Spencer, 1997, p. 1038- children: Thomas, Katherine, Ruth, and Gordon (A. Todd,
1040). personalcommunication, 19August 1996).
Fewer than 20 in number, these works as a group present Forsomeofhisearlyyears,ThomasWingateToddwasasickly
a mixed and much less-than-comprehensive portrait of Todd. child, hislocalschooleducation occasionally interrupted byhis
Beyondseveralbasicsconcerninghisworkethicandcompetence, bouts with different diseases (Cobb, 1959, A. Todd, 1988, and
theyvarywidelyonnearlyeveryotheraspectofhispersonality personalcommunication,8June 1995).Hebecamesoillin 1898
andsignificance.Partofthereasonforthispuzzlingdiversityof thathisfamilysenthimofftoafarminOldDalby,Leicestershire,
historicalimpressionmaybethefactthatmostofTodd’spersonal forayeartorecuperateandbuilduphisstrength(A.Todd,1988,
4 KERN No. 55
and personal communication, 8 June 1995). Despite these itillogicalto surmisethatthisinterestinspiredatleastsomeof
setbacks and a move with his family to and from Liverpool, his tremendous later efforts to assess and improve the growth,
Todd continued his elementary education under private tuition development, and health of children through his original
and was graduated in a timely fashion from Nottingham High longitudinal studies and the Bolton and Brush Inquiries that
School (T. W. Todd, n.d.a; Shapiro, 1939, p.458; Cobb, 1959, followed(see“Todd’sfinalyears”below)(Todd, 1930b,p. 5).
p.233). Todd’schildhoodsicklinessmayalsohaveplayedaroleinthe
Todd’s upbringing and childhood experiences had numerous relativelymildandspecificformofeugenicsheadoptedlaterin
long-lasting influences on his personality and professional life. life. Hewascriticalofextremistsintheeugenicsmovementwho
Manyoftheseeffectsweredirectlyattributabletohisparents.For insisted that it was “dysgenic” either to institute preventive
example, although born in England, Todd adopted the speech pediatricmedicineortotryto“conserve”childrenof“relatively
patternso—fhisfamilyandspokewithasmallScottish“burr”his feebleconstitution.”Theseextremiststhoughtthatsuchmeasures
entirelife anaccentthathewould occasionally“turnonfull” werecontrarytothelawsofnaturalselectionandthusweakened
for effect in his lectures and speeches (Cobb, 1959, p.233; A. humanity.Tohavetakensuchapositionwouldhavebeenvery
Todd, personal communication, 8 June 1995). In a broader difficult, even hypocritical, for a former chronically sick child
linguisticsense,hisfatheralsoinstilledinToddaloveandsense suchasTodd. Rather,Todd’sbrandofeugenicsplacedsupreme
of importance of ancient languages. The minister’s son thus emphasis on measures to ensure the healthy development of
acquired an abilityin Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit thathenever “well-born” children through family planning and prophylactic
lost (Cobb, 1959, p.233; A. Todd, personal communication, 8 nutritionandmedicalcare.Toddviewedallothercommonly-held
June 1995). eugenic ideas (for example, forced sterilization ofthe “feeble-
Hisfather’sreligiousbackgroundalsocontributedsignificantly minded”)ascrudeandsecondarymeasurestothegrowthofwell
toTodd’sadultpersonalityandwork. Earlyinhisadultlifehe children.Insomeways,then,Todd’sdismissalofthevocationhe
taught Sunday school, once (according to his own account) felt“Fate”heldforhimwasabitpremature,andthelegacyofhis
contrivingtomakethewallsactuallyfalldownwhilecoveringthe sicklyyouthinspiredhimtowardwhatmanyconsiderhismost
bookofJoshua(A.Todd,personalcommunication,8June1995). significantwork(Todd, 1930b,p.4-8).
The most obvious manifestations of these influences on his Amongtheotherlong-lastinginfluencesofTodd’syouthwas
mature work were the Biblical references and allusions that the development of a voracious appetite for reading and
aboundedinhisspeechesandhiswritings.Onamoresubtlelevel, a passionate love ofliterature. From an early age, Todd read
one of T. Wingate’s peers cited the Reverend Todd’s non- wellandwidely,alwaysscribblingusefulorpleasingpassagesand
conformism as being at least partially responsible for an anecdotes on the back covers ofan extremelyeclectic array of
independent streakthatexhibiteditselfinmanywaysduringT. books(A.Todd,personalcommunication,8June1995).Hewas
Wingate’scareer(Shapiro, 1939,p.458;Cobb, 1959,p.233).His quitewell-versedintheBibleandtheGreekandRomanclassics,
father’snonconformismmayhav—ealsocontributedtoTodd’sown and sprinkled quotations and allusions to these liberally
somewhat ecumenical nature he visited several different throughouthisspeechesandwritings,bothpublicandscholarly.
churches during his adult life, both Protestant and Catholic. Hisknowledgeofliteratureextendedfarbeyondtheclassicaland
Althoughnotaregularchurchgoer,Toddwasneverthelessaman Biblicalcanons, though. Todd’swritingsand speecheswererife
ofprofoundreligiousfaithwhoalsohadthegreatestrespectfor withreferencesto theworksofBritishauthors(e.g., Browning,
the faiths ofothers (Shapiro, 1939, p.458; A. Todd, personal Hardy, Ruskin, Wesley) as well as non-British (e.g., Emerson,
communication, 8 June 1995). Todd reflected his personal Melville,Montaigne,Turgenev),past(e.g.,Carlyle,Pepys,Pope,
religious outlook not only in his public speeches and private Swift)andcontemporary(e.g.,A.Huxley,Russell,Sand,Wells),
correspondence,butalsoinhisprofessionalwork. Inplaces,his great (e.g., Dickens, Shakespeare, Tennyson, Twain) and less-
scholarly publications betray a sincere belief in a guided than-great (e.g., Giordano Bruno, Jean de la Bruyere, John
orderlinessintheworld andnature. Knowledgeofthisbeliefis Evelyn,Kropotkin). (Thenameslistedcomefromasamplingof
crucial to understanding Todd’s “orthogenic” (or “directed”) about ten percent ofTodd’s work by the—author.) In addition,
viewofevolution(Todd,n.d.b, 1933b;Keith, 1939a,p.350). countl—ess folktales, proverbs, and jokes often of Scottish
Todd’schildhoodbattleswithsicknesslefttheirmarkonhimas origin found their way into Todd’s works for illustrative or
well. Duringtheprolongedperiodofillhealth, familymembers humorouspurposes(Cobb, 1959,p.233;Gottlieb, 1982,p.41).
began to refer to the young Thomas Todd as “poor Tom,” Beyond the simple anecdote or allusion, Todd’s love of
amonikerhedespised(A.Todd,personalcommunication,8June literaturewasalsoevidentinhiswritingstyle.Indeed,severalof
1995). The full impact oftheseunhappyyears onTodd’s adult theitemsintheToddbibliographywerepurelyliteraryinnature.
personalityisuncertain,asToddspokelittleandwroteevenless As a student and facultymember at Manchester Universityhe
onthesubject. However,itispossibletomakesomereasonable was active in the expansion of the University Press, and
conjecturesbasedonwhatlittleinformationhechosetodivulge. contributed pieces to the Medical Student Gazette (e.g., T. W.
Forexample,accordingtohissonArthur(personalcommunica- Todd, 1910b-e).Hisprofessionalwriting,citedbymanyasbeing
tion,8June1995),thereasonhedropped“Thomas”andbeganto unusually clear and forceful for his time and profession, was
refertohimselfas“T.Wingate”betokenedthedegreetowhichhe nevertheless at times prone to the majestic phrase or the
detested everything associated with his childhood nickname. grandiloquent flourish (Krogman, 1939, p. 144; Macklin, 1939,
Perhapsmoresignificantly,Toddalsostatedthatatthebeginning p.200; Shapiro, 1939, p.460; Jones-Kern, 1997, p. 152). A
ofhis medical career “all ofmy attention was turned towards perfectionist ateverythinghedid, Toddlaboredextraordinarily
pediatrics and I thought Fate was making for me a future in hardonhiswritingandwasunusuallyjealousofhiswork(Keith,
DiseasesofChildren”(Todd, 1929c,p.4).Itisnotunreasonable 1939a, p. 350-351). When he worked with coauthors he was
to assume that Todd’s unhappy experience with childhood extremely blunt in hiscritiques oftheirwriting, andwouldnot
diseasesplayedalargeroleinhisinitialchoiceofcareer,noris sendanitemtopresswithhisnameappendedifitdidnotmeethis
2006 T. WINGATETODD 5
standards(Keith, 1939a,p.350-351;A.Todd,personalcommu- students ofhis university’s recent past (Shapiro, 1939, p.458;
nication, 8 June 1995). Several incautious editors drew the full Cobb, 1959,p.233). Hislaurelsincluded theJuniorand Senior
forceofhiswrathintheirattemptstoalterhisprose,yetTodd PlattScholarshipsinPhysiology;everyprizeandmedalforwhich
phrasedeventheangriestcondemnationsofeditorialbutcheryin hecompetedin thefields ofanatomy, physiology, and surgery;
anextremelyerudite,menacinglypolitestyle(Jones-Kern, 1997, andfirst-classhonorsuponhisgraduationin 1907(K.A.Olliver,
appendix B). Perhapsitwasbecauseofhisliteraryflairthathe personal communication, 19 July 1996). The school respected
became anextremelypopularpublicspeaker, notjust in Cleve- Todd’s abilities so greatly that upon graduation it immediately
land,butacrossthecountry(Keith, 1939a,p.350-351;A.Todd, offered him positions in anatomy, physiology, and medicine
personalcommunication,8June 1995). (Cobb, 1959,p.233). Becausehispersonalacademicinterestlay
The final significant legacy of Todd’s childhood was the in anatomyandhisclinicalinterest in surgery, Todd eventually
development of his abiding and intense affection for natural acceptedthepostofdemonstratorofanatomyattheUniversityof
history. Fromaveryearlyage,creaturesofallkindsfascinated Manchester the same year (T. W. Todd, 1912; Shapiro, 1939,
Toddandheexhibitedakeeninterestinnature.Hetremendously p.458).Hesoonprovedhimselfmorethanequaltothetask.
enjoyed the company of animals, and received significant Toddhadonlybeendemonstratinganatomyforoneyearwhen
exposureto themin hisformativeyears, notjust from hisyear A. H. Young, head of the anatomical department, suffered
onthefarm,butfromyearsofvolunteeringhishelpatthelocal a debilitating and eventually mortal stroke. IfManchester had
zoo(T.W.Todd,1912;A.Todd,personalcommunication,8June appointedanewmantothepositionatthattime,thegravelyill
1995and19August1996).Thisaffectionforanimallifecontinued Dr.Youngandhiswifewouldhavehadlittlesignificantincome
throughouthisadultlife,andpeopleoftenbroughthimsickand (Cobb, 1959,p.233). Forthisreason, andasmanywouldlater
injuredanimalsthathecaredforastenderlyashedidwhenthe say befitted his character, Todd shouldered nearly all of the
ManchesterandClevelandzoosaskedhimtodothesame(T.W. teachingandadministrativeresponsibilitiesofthedepartmentfor
Todd, 1912; A. Todd, personal communication, 8 June 1995). theyearwhileYoungstillofficiallyheadedthedepartmentuntil
Todd’slaboratoryatWesternReserveUniversitywasahavenfor his death in 1909 (Keith, 1939a, p.350; Cobb, 1981, p.518).
numerousdifferentcreaturesovertheyears,includingaraccoon, Althoughonly23yearsofage,Toddwassolelyinchargeofthe
rhesusmonkeys,achimpanzee,andalligators.Toddkeptthelast anatomical department at one of England’s major universities
oftheseasakindofcrudeburglaralarm:soundinglike“souls... untilthewell-respectedDr.GraftonElliotSmithreplacedYoung
comebackfromthedead,”theyprovedtobeaneffectiveintruder inOctoberof1909(Keith, 1939a,p.350;Shapiro, 1939,p.458).
deterrentforanerstwhilemorgue(A.Todd,personalcommuni- ThearrivalofSmithhadprofoundpersonal andprofessional
cation, 8June 1995). Oneparticularlabfavorite ofTodd’swas ramifications for Todd. Smith, an Australian, hadjust arrived
a lame chimpanzee dubbed Claudius (betraying again his from Cairo where he was conducting the classic Egyptian
weakness for classical allusion). —Todd used Claudius in his investigations that would later win him a knighthood. Smith
developmental studies ofchildren whenever the ape was not conferreduponhisnewyoungcolleaguetheconsiderabletaskof
busyuntyingtheshoelacesofallofthelabworkersandvisitors cataloging and arranging the substantial amount of skeletal
(Gottlieb, 1982,p.41). materialcollectedundertheauspicesoftheNubianArchaeolog-
Apartfromthenumeroushumorousanecdotesconcerninghis icalSurvey(Cobb, 1959,p.233).Thisduty,whichToddexecuted
Western Reserve menagerie, Todd’s childhood status as an admirably, had several long-reaching effects. First, his friends
animal-lover produced several significant influences on his latercrediteditwithdevelopinginhimalong-lastingenthusiasm
professional career. One of his earl—iest scholarly papers was forresearcheson“menofantiquity,”andphysicalanthropology
a treatise on his elephant dissections the first to demonstrate in general. Todd wrote about or cited the ancient Egyptian
t1h9a8t1,thp.e5p1a8c).hyAdelromnsg-htaivmeemnoempbleeurraof(Tt.heWC.leTvoedlda,nd1M91u3s;eCuombbo,f k(Snhoawplierod,ge193h9e,lp.ea4r5n8e;dCoatbbM,an19c5h9e,stp.er233f)o.rStehceondre,stToodfd’hsiswolrifke
NaturalHistoryandtheClevelandHumaneSociety,Toddjoined onEgyptianskeletons(aswellashisteachingtalents)wonhimthe
numerous professional and scholarly organizations over the friendshipandrespectofG.ElliotSmith,aninfluentialfigurein
course of his career, including the American Association of British academic circles. Smith later wrote a glowing letter of
Mammalogists, the American Museum ofNatural History, the recommendation for Todd when he applied for the chair of
BostonSocietyofNaturalHistory,andtheAmericanSocietyof anatomyatWesternReserveUniversity,andthetwomaintained
Naturalists, and had a corresponding membership in the awarmpersonalandprofessionalrelationshipuntilSmith’sdeath
ZoologicalSocietyofLondon(T. W.Todd, 1912). Todd’skeen in 1938 (T. W. Todd, 1912). Third, hisexemplarywork on the
andabidinginterestinanimalliferesultedinhisbecomingoneof NubiancollectionwaslargelyresponsibleforTodd’selectionas
bthaecklatstogtrheeatSccootmspmaarnatJiovhenanHautnotmeirstsin,tihnea17t0ra0dsit(iKoenitsht,re1t9c3h9ian,g pa.F1e1l5l)o.wToofdtdheprRoouydallyCaotltlaecgheedofthSeurlgetetoenrss“iFn.1R9.1C1.S(.K”eittoh,th1e93e9ncd,
p. 352-353;Krogman, 1939c,p. 143;A.Todd,personalcommu- ofhis namein allwritings fortherest ofhislife(T. W. Todd,
nication,8June 1995). 1938f;A.Todd,personalcommunication,8June1995).Last,and
perhaps most significantly, Todd’s Egyptian duties gave him
Collegeandearlyprofessionalcareer: 1902-1912 extensive experience in the curation and cataloging of large
Afterhighschool,ToddenrolledattheManchesterUniversity quantities ofskeletal material. He later used this skill to build
Medical SchoolinOctober 1902attheageofseventeen(T. W. what is probably his most important academic legacy: the
Todd, 1912).Hemetwithgreatacademicsuccessincollege,and Hamann-Todd osteological collection (Shapiro, 1939, p.458;
it was there that he began to exhibit the seemingly boundless Cobb, 1959,p.233;A. Todd,personalcommunication, 28June
enthusiasmandenergythatcharacterizedhisprofessionalcareer. 1995).
Along the way to his M.B. and Ch.B. degrees he gained the During his time at Manchester, Todd’s responsibilities and
reputation of being one of the most distinguished medical experiencegrewconsiderablyyearbyyear. In 1908,Toddbegan
6 KERN No. 55
to conduct classes forthe primary (and occasionally, the final) writtenoeuvreincludednumerousitemsoutsidehisprofessional
examination for both the Fellowship ofthe Royal College of realmofanatomy.Toddwrotearticlestouchingonthefieldsof
Surgeons in England and the Royal College of Surgeons of history, archaeology, cultural anthropology, sociology, psychol-
Edinburgh. Also, startinginthatyear, hewasput incharge of ogy, surgery, medicine, mammalogy, human paleontology,
deliveringalldescriptiveanatomylecturestodentalstudents.This primatology, allergy, and nutrition over the course of his
markedthebeginningofalifelongprofessionalassociationwith professional life, attesting to his continued broad interests and
problems of dental anatomy (T. W. Todd, 1912). However, well-readnature. Eveninanatomy,hisworkswerequitediverse
despite his already formidable anatomical knowledge and in- beyondhisprimaryfocus onthemusculoskeletal system. Apart
creasingduties,Toddfeltthatheneededmuchgreaterexperience from numerous articles on skeletal anatomy, Todd’s published
in surgicalandclinicalworkthancouldhavebeengainedfrom anatomicalworksincluded:astandardworkonthemicroscopic
working at hospitals during “vacations” (A. Todd, personal anatomyofaspecializedsystemoftheheart;manyarticlesand
communication, 8 June 1995). Accordingly, inOctober 1909 he abookondentalanatomy;severalpiecesandtwobooksonthe
tookasabbaticalfromnearlyallofhisteachingdutiestobecome gastrointestinalsystem;numerousarticlesandabookongrowth
the House Surgeon at the Manchester Royal Infirmary (T. W. anddevelopment;atextbookchapterontherespiratorysystem;
Todd, 1912;Cobb, 1959,p.233). Hebecamesoadeptatclinical andvariousitemsontheskin,theeyes,thetonsil,osteology,the
diagnosisduringthisperiodandafterwardthatfortherestofhis nervous,vascular, andendocrinesystems;x-raytechniques, and
lifeToddcouldrecognizeintotalstrangersthetelltalesymptoms laboratory and clinical methods. Taking into account such
of previous maladies at a single glance (A. Todd, personal impediments to his research as his years of service in World
communication, 8 June 1995). The experience in clinical and WarIandhisdutiesasteacher,administrator,andmemberand
surgical anatomy he acquired at the Royal Infirmary were officer ofnumerous professional organizations, his publication
extremely influential in Todd’s professional development, pro- averageofnearlyoneitempermonthistrulyastonishing(Jones-
viding data and inspiration for some ofhis earliest published Kern, 1997,appendixA).
works and equipping him with the clinical skills he used years Todd’sburgeoningindustryatwritingduringthistimedidnot
later in numerous surgical and clinicaljournal articles (Cobb, detract from his efforts toward his established and increasing
1959,p.233;A.Todd,personalcommunication,8June 1995). professionalresponsibilities. Histeachingdutiesexpandedashe
Although crucial to his scholarly growth, his sabbatical was tookonlecturesinsystematicstomedicalstudentsanddeveloped
short-lived. In March 1910hisreplacementatManchestertook several new courses, including anatomy for art students and
anotherjobandtheUniversitycalledToddback,thistimewith anatomy and neurology for psychology students (T. W. Todd,
thetitleLecturerinAnatomy; aprecociousaccomplishmentfor 1912; Shapiro, 1939,p.458).Atthesametime,Todddeveloped
a25-year-old(T.W.Todd,1912;Keith,1939a,p.350).Neverone anewcurriculumforthediplomaindentistry, andaidedinthe
toshyawayfromresponsibility,heservedinbothhisclinicaland establishmentofanentirelynewdegreeindentalscience(T. W.
academiccapacities concurrently until hisyear at the infirmary Todd, 1912; Shapiro, 1939, p.458). He was also the official
wascompletethatAugust. Inhisnewpost,Toddsoonhadthe internal examiner for both programs. In addition to these
opportunitytodrawonhisrecenthospitalexperience.Manches- classroom duties, Todd, by 1912, had five senior students (one
ter not only named Todd its Tom Jones Surgical Research ofwhomwashisbrotherGordon)conductingresearchunderhis
Scholar, butalsomadehimresponsiblefordeveloping, demon- direction, and the Anatomical Society of Great Britain and
strating,andteachinganewcourseinclinicalanatomyforfifth- Irelandnamedhimasoneoftheircouncilors(T.W.Todd, 1912).
year students (T. W. Todd, 1912). His new course was such Inhisless-than-copiousfreetime, healsotookonthedutiesof
a success that Ancoats Hospital invited him to give courses of anatomist and consulting veterinary surgeon to the Belle Vue
post-graduateinstructioninclinicalanatomy(T.W.Todd, 1912; Zoological Gardens in Manchester in 1911, displaying his
Keith,1939a,p.350).Theseeventsin1910aresignificantbecause ongoingdevotiontoandinterestinthebiologyofotherspecies,
itwas ataboutthis timethatcolleaguesfirst gaveconsiderable evenwhilehewasbuildingacareerinthebiologyofhumans(T.
attention to a characteristic that remained one of Todd’s W.Todd, 1912;Macklin, 1939).
hallmarks: teachingskills.Todd’sabundanteducationalabilities Although all these manifold responsibilities and enviable
were already attractingthe appreciativecomments and admira- experiences in multiple areas together had a significant impact
tion ofhis peers, and his reputation as a teachercontinued to on his career, nothing during his three years as lecturer in
grow for the rest ofhis life (Keith, 1939a, p. 350; Cobb, 1959, anatomyatManchesterhadamoreprofoundimpactonTodd’s
p.233). Even colleagues who disagreed with (or even disliked) professionallifethanhisacquaintanceandfriendshipwithArthur
himduringhiscareerwouldlaterconcedethatasateacherhehad Keith.Alreadyaprominentfigureinanatomyandanthropology
fewrivals(Waite, 1946,p.408). whenToddmethim,Keithsoonbecameinternationallyfamous
The year 1910 was significant in Todd’s career for another (and much later, infamous) for his association with the
reason. Despite the duties and stressesinvolved in holding two “discovery” anddescription of“PiltdownMan.” (Laterproven
jobsandorganizingtheteachingofnewcourses,hefoundtimeto tobeahoax,somehistorianshavesuggesteditsperpetratortobe
writeaseriesofcontributionsfortheManchesterMedicalStudent noneotherthanKeithhimself. See,forexample, Spencer, 1990,
Gazette,includinghisfirstscholarlypublication,“Anattemptto chapter 8). Todd frequentlyvisited Keith’s lab starting around
organize the description ofthe muscles ofthe spinal column” 1910whilehewasbeginningthefirstofhismanyinvestigations
(Todd, 1910a).Thesemodestarticleswerethefirstofnearly300 into growth and development ofhumans andprimates. Todd’s
publishedpiecesToddwroteorcowroteoverthenext28years. enthusiasm and prowess immediately impressed his elder col-
While this list embraced book reviews, published speeches, league,andadeep,mutuallyaffectionateandrespectfulrelation-
obituaries,andworksofageneralliterarybent,over200entries ship between the two developed that lasted until Todd’s death
intheToddbibliographywerescholarlyinnature,includingfour (Keith, 1950, p.342-343). His admiration for Keith needs no
book-length works. An extremely eclectic assortment, Todd’s furtherproofthan the factthatToddnamed hisfirst-born son
2006 T. WINGATETODD 7
afterhismentor(A.Todd,personalcommunication,8June1995). GermanHospitalofPhiladelphiain 1891,thechiefhouseofficer
Keith’sreciprocalsentimentstowardToddwereevidentnotonly wenttoEuropetostudyandtheinstitutionappointedtheyoung
intheglowingdescriptionsheaffordedToddin hisautobiogra- internactingheadresident.Hedrewconsiderablepraisefromthe
phy, but also in the several tributes Keith wrote for British staff,trustees,andofficialhospitalreportforthatyear,bothfor
scholarlyjournals in 1939 (Keith, 1939a-c; 1950, p. 342-343). his administrative skill and his compilation ofall the surgical
Counting the soon-to-be Sir Arthur among his friends and casesinhospitalfiles.NamedtheresidentsurgeonintheMaryJ.
admirerspaidtremendousprofessionaldividendsforTodd, and Drexel Children’s Hospital in Philadelphia the following year,
literallychangedthecourseofhislifeinconjunctionwithevents Hamann also taught private anatomy courses, became the
thatweretranspiringmorethan4,000milesawayinCleveland, Assistant Demonstrator of Anatomy for the University of
Ohio. Pennsylvania, andstartedhisownprivatepracticeinthecourse
ofthenexttwoyears.Hamannwasperformingthesedutieswhen
ThecalltoCleveland: 1912 Western Reserve University called him to their faculty (Waite,
WhileT.WingateToddwasgrowingfromanunwellchildinto 1930,p. 3—4; 1946,p.488^189).
a bright young anatomist in England, medicine in the United In1893,theWesternReserveMedicalSchoolwasenduringone
States was also metamorphosing from a sickly profession into ofthe most turbulent times in its history. On top ofextremely
arobustandtechnicallyadvancedscience.Atitslowestpointin divisiveissues concerningfinances, administration, andcurricu-
the1800s,Americanmedicinewasdiscreditedintheeyesofmuch lumreform,fiveofthefacultyboltedtojointhestaffofarival
ofthe public for numerous reasons, including the practices of institution immediately preceding the fall term (Waite, 1946,
countlessquacksandincompetents,thepoorreputationofmany p.346-347).WesternReserveimmediatelychargedthreeoftheir
hospitals,andagenerally-perceivedinabilityoftheprofessionto faculty who were on their way to attend a medical convention
explain or treat most diseases effectively (Ackerknecht, 1982, withthe dutyofalso finding anew anatomy instructorforthe
p.218-222; Starr, 1982, p.30-60). Because ofthe public’s low medical school. Colleagues from Boston, New York, Philadel-
regard formainstream medicine, numerous challenges arose to phia,andBaltimoreadvisedthemtopursueHamann,whomthe
conventionalmedicalpracticeatthistime,includinghomeopathy, University immediately asked to become acting professor of
dietarytherapy, andeven thedevelopment ofChristian Science anatomy (Waite, 1946, p.369-370). The next year, at age 26,
(Walters, 1978,chapter7;Starr, 1982,p. 30-60). Hamann became theyoungest full professorin the institution’s
In order to combat the erosion of public esteem for their first 100years(Waite, 1930,p.4-5;Waite 1946,p.488-489).
profession, physicians in the United States began to take steps Overthenext20years,Hamannbecameoneofthemosthighly
towardbringingrespectabilitybacktomedicalpractice.Banding regardedmennotjustinthemedicalschool,butinClevelandas
together to found the American Medical Association, these well,forhisuntiringandmultifariousefforts. Immediatelyupon
doctorsworkeddiligentlytooustquacksandincompetentsfrom his arrival he began to work as a surgeon in the college
theirranksbyinstitutingorstrengtheninglicensingrequirements dispensary, and City and Charity Hospitals appointed him to
to practice medicine in the various states (Ackerknecht, 1982, their staffs over the next four years. By 1911, Hamann was
p.210-226;Starr, 1982,p. 79-144).Akeycomponentofthenew Cleveland’s leading surgeon (Waite, 1930, p. 5-6; Waite, 1946,
licensing procedures was an emphasis on adequate medical p.488^189).Asafacultymember,hewasanoutstandingteacher
trainingasarequirementforreceivingone’slicense. Thus, over anddevelopedand taughtextremelypopularcoursesin applied
the course of the nineteenth century, the old apprentice or anatomy that demonstrated the breadth of his knowledge by
preceptorialshipsystemofmedicaleducationwassupplantedby combining descriptive, comparative, and human anatomy with
numerousmedicalschoolsthatbegantospringupthroughoutthe embryology, physiology, pathology, surgical diagnosis, and
UnitedStates(Walters,1978,p. 154-156;Starr, 1982,p.79-144). clinical surgery (Waite, 1930, p.5-6; Waite, 1946, p.488^489).
Asemi-standardizedcurriculumofcourseworkdevelopedatthe Inadditiontotheseresponsibilities,Hamannalsowantedtobuild
same time, which included a strong anatomical component ananatomicalteachingmuseum.Hebegantocollect,mount,and
(Waite, 1946,p.343-344). buyspecimensofvarioushumanandnon-humanmaterials.These
While medical education in the United States was becoming created the nucleus ofwhat would become the Hamann-Todd
standardized, Pasteur, Koch, and others in Europe were collection. Considering all ofhis accomplishments in different
conducting their ground-breaking research of microbes. From areas, it is little wonder that Hamann earned the affectionate
the1860stothe1890s,scientistsdiscoveredmicroorganismswere nickname of “The King” in Cleveland’s medical community
thecauseofnumerousdiseases,anddoctorsforthefirsttimewere (Cobb, 1959, p.233-234). When a professorship of applied
ableto cure, ratherthan merely treat thesymptoms, ofseveral anatomy and clinical surgery opened in 1911, Hamann was
dreadedafflictions (Ackerknecht, 1982, p. 175-185; Starr, 1982, anatural and popular choice to fill this position (Waite, 1930,
p. 180-197). This, combined with the efforts toward improving p. 5-6;Waite, 1946,p.488^189).
licensingandeducation,didmuchtorestorethecredibilityofthe Although Hamann could have continued his departmental
medicalprofessionintheUnitedStates(Starr, 1982,p. 180-197; responsibilities,hefeltthataChairofAnatomyshouldbeableto
Walters, 1978,p. 154-156). givehisfulltimetoteachingandresearchandresignedhispost,
ItwasinthismilieuofchangeandexpansionthatCarlAugust effective at the end of the school year. President Thwing
Hamann (Figure2) trained and began to practice medicine. In immediately appointed him to chair a committee to find his
manywaysanAmericanparallelofT. WingateTodd, Hamann ownreplacement.Thiswasamajordecision,asanatomywasone
was graduatedwith the highest average from the University of ofthemostimportantsubjectsinthemedicalcurriculum.Nearly
PennsylvaniaMedicalSchoolin 1890,andreceivedprizesforhis twoyears passed before the searchcommittee reported, a large
scholasticaptitude. Like Todd, he felt himselfto be in needof partofthedelaybeingcausedbythesuddenresignationofDean
greatersurgicaltraining, andchosefromamongtheinternships MillikinandtheelevationofHamanntothepost(Cobb, 1959,
offered him on that basis. While Hamann was serving at the p.233-234).ThechoiceHamannandhiscommitteefinallymade
8 KERN No. 55
their opinion of selecting some man from Great Britain.”
According to Waite these anatomists all advised against such
a course ofaction. After several weeks spent considering some
Americans and “a young man in an English university,” the
committee was unable to come to a unanimous decision. They
sentamajorityreporttothepresidentofWesternReserve,who
acceptedit“underthemisapprehensionthatitwasunanimous.”
President Thwing then immediately cabled an offer to Todd
(Waite, 1946,p.407).
WhileWaitedoesnotmention anycommitteemember other
thanMacLeod,theFacultyMinutesmakeitclearthat“another
member” wasWaite. Waiterefers to himselfintheanonymous
thirdpersonelsewhereaswell(e.g.,Waite, 1946,p.389),andhe
maintainedanintensedislikeforTodd(evidentnotonlyfromhis
bookbutfromremembrancesfromformerstudentsandfamily)
throughout Todd’s residencyin the United States (Cobb, 1959,
p.234; A. Todd, personal communication, 8 June 1995).
Significantly,Waitedoesnotgivethenameofthethirdmember
andchairofthecommittee,Hamann.Perhapsitwasbecausethe
revered professor and dean was in favor ofchoosing the man
WaitedetestedthathechosetokeepHamann’sidentityasecret
(Western Reserve Medical School, 1912; A. Todd, personal
ioFnsitgbeurorilenogg2.iicnPagolrTtcoroadlildtectotofioCCnla.ervl(ePAlhuaogntduosatcnodHuraitmneascnyrenoa,tfiwtnhhgeothDweiatHstraiimcnaksntMrnuu-msTeenotudamdl ctahocacmAtomruutbnnhetiuccraoaufKtseietiohtinmsh,osma8tantJdtouefnTre.otdh1Ade9c’9csb5eo)ss.rttduiydneognutntsogotfahfnieasrtvoaemrisssoitomsne,winhHaatthmeadinUfnnfeirtfeeenldtt
ofMedicalHistory.) StateswereproductsofJohnsHopkins,andbecausetheEnglish
anatomists stood closer to his conceptions ofthe traditions of
practicalmedicine,heshouldlookoverseas.ThusDeanHamann
wrotetoMacLeod’sfriendArthurKeithforthenameof“thebest
reflectednotonlythenewdean’sownproclivitiesbutalsolarger young man in England” to fill the newly-endowed Howard
forces of medical education at the time. As a result of the WilsonPayneChairofAnatomyatWesternReserveUniversity.
advancesinmedicalknowledgeandeducationinthehalfcentury KeithunhesitatinglyrecommendedTodd(Keith, 1939a,p.350-
priorto 1912, anatomical instruction itselfwaschangingin the 351; A. Todd, personal communication, 8 June 1995). Todd
United States. Its premier medical institution, Johns Hopkins jumped at the opportunity, collecting recommendations from
MedicalSchool,wassettingnewstandardsofexcellence.Interms fellowfacultymembers(includingG. ElliotSmith)andthevice-
of research and quality ofeducation, Johns Hopkins received chancellor ofthe University to send with his forcefully-worded
wide recognition as the best in the country almost from its applicationforthejob(T.W.Todd, 1912).Inhisbroadinterests,
foundation in 1876. Among the first to institute the modern anatomical andsurgical skills, intelligence, experience, industry,
college curriculum, the Baltimore college’s medical school also andprecociousaccomplishments,ToddreflectedthenewDean’s
followedtheleadofthegreatEuropeanmedicalinstitutionsand own career and traditional anatomical philosophies. Hamann
aggressively pursued research in the burgeoning fields of offered the 27-year-old Todd the job in the autumn of 1912
microscopy and bacteriology, adopting the latest technical (Keith, 1939a,p.350-351;Gottlieb, 1982,p.39;Behrents, 1984,
methods. The new emphases of its anatomical curriculum on p. 1-3).
microscopic biology and increasing specialization came at the The truth of the matter lies in the Case Western Reserve
expense ofmore traditional instruction in gross, practical, and archivesandrevealsthatWaitewasatbestapoorhistorianandat
comparative anatomy. Johns Hopkins’ prestige and that ofits worst a deliberate prevaricator. Some circumstantial evidence
alumnimadeitscurriculumveryinfluentialonothercollegesand pointstothisconclusionaswell:Waite’sHistorywasnotentirely
universities, shaping medical education methods across the unbiased elsewhere, and the long-standing mutual dislike he
country. To Hamann and others, this change was not entirely sharedwithhiscolleaguemayhavecolorednotonlyhisportrayal
for the better, and for his replacement he wanted to find ofTodd(marginalandlargelynegative),butevenhisrival’shiring
aprofessorwhosharedhisownbroadinterestsandconservative process. While Keith and Todd’s students were probably not
anatomical philosophy (Keith, 1939a, p. 350-351; Cobb, 1959, withoutbias,either,thereislittlereasontosuspectthatKeithlied
p.233-234). aboutHamann’sletterofinquiryorhisownresponse,whichno
To aid Hamann in this decision, President Thwing had also longerexists.Theofficialcommitteereportnolongerexists,but
appointedJ. J. R. MacLeod and FrederickWaiteto thesearch a detailed account ofit remains in the medical-school faculty
committee.Somedisputeexistsastowhathappenedatthispoint. minutes.TheseminutesdisputeWaite’saccountonseveralpoints.
AccordingtoFrederickWaite,professorofhistologyandfaculty Accordingtothefacultyminutesfor3October1912,thesearch
secretary, MacLeod wished to bring another graduate from an committee had been gathering information by interview and
English institution to fill the post. “Another member” ofthe correspondence since its appointment nearly two years earlier.
committee visited “the leading American anatomists” to seek Waite traveled across the United States during this time and
theiropinions on thebest mantohire, and “incidentally asked MacLeodvisitedextensivelyinEnglandforthesixmonthsprior
2006 T. WINGATETODD 9
tothemeeting.Waite’saccountofhistravelsdifferssignificantly impending departure so moved his peers at the Manchester
from his published remembrance of “incidentally” asking SchoolofAnatomythattheystagedanelegantfarewelldinnerat
“leading American anatomists” about hiring a person from theMidlandHotel.ChairedbyG.ElliotSmith,theeventincluded
“Great Britain.” Rather, the minutes state that “one of the toaststotheKingandtoToddfollowingadinnerofconsomme
fundamentalquestions”regardingthesearchwastheefficacyof crouteaupotandcrememedicis,filetdeturbotd'Antin,crouteen
hiring someone “from continental Europe.” Of the fourteen risdeveauToulouse,alongwithcontrefiletpiquesauceTyrolienne,
AmericansWaiteconsultedandquotedintheminutes,onlythree pommesrissoles,andharicotsvertsmaitred’hotel,salad,biscuits,
wereprofessorsofanatomy.Therestwereprofessorsofhistology canapes,andpetitsfours(Anonymous,1912).Thecelebrationwas
andembryology(1),physiology(1),pathology(1),medicine(1), doublyappropriateforTodd.Lessthanaweekearlier,probably
and zoology (3); medical-school deans (2); the director of inhisfather’sCheathamHillchurch,ToddmarriedMissEleanor
Concillium Bibliographicum; and a person from the Carnegie Pearson of Manchester (A. Todd, personal communication, 8
Foundation.Furthermore,itisclearfromtheirquotedcomments June 1995; D. Todd, personal communication, 9 September
thatthesemen’sreservationsrestedonabeliefthattheanatomist 1996). True to his professionalnature, anengrossingdissection
in questionwas tocome from a non-English-speakingcountry. made him late for his own wedding to “Nell” on November 9
These comments include “Advise against any other than an (Gottlieb, 1982,p. 38;A.Todd,personalcommunication,8June
English-speaking foreigner,” “it is extremely hazardous to take 1995).
a German, Swiss less so, and British less riskyyet,” and “it is Onthesurface,thereasonsbehindTodd’sacceptanceofthejob
unwisetoimportaGermanunto[ji'c]aprofessorialchairinthis atWesternReservearenotentirelyself-evident. Itisabundantly
country.” Waite instead nominated no less than 21 American clearthathelovedhisnativecountry: heneverrelinquishedhis
anatomistsforthepost,butaftertheapplicationofanumberof British citizenship, visited as often as he could, volunteered to
dkinsoquwanlifilyli-nhgealctrhi,telriaack(noofimnetderiecsatl, itmramiantiunrg,ityunraenldiabilneexpreersieeanrcceh,, dseervvoetitohnetCooEmnmgolnanwdeailntnhumienroWuosrlodtheWrarwayI,safnordtdhiesprelsatyeodfhhiiss
inability to “fit into local conditions,” and “personal and life.Inaddition,hewasalsoonlyatthebeginningofwhatwould
racial characteristics”), only six remained. To winnow this list havebeenapromisingcareerinEngland.Hisrapidprofessional
further, thecommittee weighed additional conditions, including advancement and the respect of powerful friends in British
age (preferably under 40), research excellence, organizational anatomical circles indicate that his stature would have only
and administrative abilities, teaching skill and experience, increasedhadhestayedinGreatBritain.
experienceasahospitalresident,andcertaintythatthecandidate However, there were several attractions of the American
wouldacceptthepositionifoffered. Afterthecommitteemade position that weighed heavily in Todd’s decision. Although
all of these considerations, it “unanimously and with the Western Reserve did not have the prestige of an eastern
chT(Poaornvdecedsu.irdbreeeTnenthncwTeihunwngoidfnecgrhtaahianerndeydDexe-“atomhfniefsiMcaimipleopleirtkemiihnnee)gmn”bsreiaoernncds”omcomoofefulnddtnhoeendn-oTutc.noaWpmniomisnimsgtiiattbtyel,eey usFniligevnxeinrfeisrci,atnywt,hroeitsspceocmnteddiuinccttaheledAtsmhceehroiionlcflaunweanmtseidaliocnCaalrtcnheoegmimreuinsFeiotuyan.nddaAtbigraoainnhifanomgr
norcan thedisputebetweenWaite’spublishedaccountandthe theAdvancementofTeachingsurveyonmedicaleducationinthe
facultyminutesbeblamedoncontraryprejudicesoftheminutes’ UnitedStatesin 1909,expressedtoWesternReserve’spresident
author: Waite was faculty secretary and signed the minutes thathismedicalschoolwassecondonlytothatofJohnsHopkins
as approved and amended. Thus, Waite’s personal account of (Waite, 1946,p.384).Moreover,therewasbothaprecedentand
the matter is misleading, biased, and contains numerous a pull to America in the person offellow Scotsman J. J. R.
inaccuracies. MacLeod.WesternReserve’sChairofPhysiology,agoodfriend
Although the University has lost most other documents ofArthurKeith’s,andlateraNobellaureateforhisworkonthe
surrounding the affair, one can make reasonable suppositions pancreas, MacLeod urged Todd to follow him to the United
fromsecondaryandcircumstantialevidencetofillinthehistorical Statesandaccepttheposition(Keith, 1939a, p.352-353;Cobb,
gaps. MacLeod was a friend ofArthur Keith’s, and probably 1959, p.235). Perhaps the most important factor in Todd’s
suggestedthatHamannwritetoKeithforadvice. Keithinturn decision, though, was the very nature ofthe post. Even at his
recommended Todd. Todd’s dazzling application, accompanied acceleratedcareerpath,Toddhardlyc—ouldhaveexpectedanoffer
bythestrongrecommendationofsuchinternationallyrespected for a full professorship—in England much less the Chair of
menasSmithandKeith,impressedHamannandMacLeod,who a university department for years to come. The opportunity
wanted someone trained in traditional anatomical methods afforded by the Western Reserve position to the energetic and
anyway. Despite Waite’s strong reservations, he was not in ambitious young anatomist was too attractive to pass up,
aposition to block Hamann’schoice, especially sincePresident particularlyifToddthoughtitwouldbeonlyarelativelyshort-
Thwingwasmorethanhappytoagreewiththenewdean’schoice term arrangement (Cobb, 1959, p.235, states that the initial
forhisownreplacement.Ifthiswasthewayithappened,Waite’s appointment was only to be for two years). Both Keith and
dislikeofToddmayhavestartedbeforetheyevenmet,andthe Todd’ssonArthurlatersuggestedthathehadplannedtocome
affairmayalsohelpexplain somelateranimositiesbetweenthe backtoEngland—p—erhapswhenasimilarpositionopenedupat
two. aBritishuniversity butthathegottoocaughtupinthework
Whateverthecircumstancesofthejoboffer,thereisnodispute anduniqueopportunitiesofhispositionthathedidn’tleave,even
over the fact that Todd enthusiastically accepted. His appoint- when offers ofEnglish posts eventually arose. Although Todd
ment to the Henry Wilson Payne Chair of Anatomy became visitedEnglandseveraltimesinthefollowingyears,heresidedin
officialinOctober,withdutiestocommenceassoonashecould theUnitedStatesfortherestofhislife(T.W.Todd,1921g;Keith,
arrive. ForthenexttwomonthsToddsetin orderhispersonal 1939a, p.352-353; A. Todd, personal communication, 22 May
affairsandresponsibilitiesinEngland(Cobb, 1959,p.234). His 1995).
—
10 KERN No. 55
“Acenturyofendeavor, inspiration, and goodwill”: Todd’s Perhapshismostimportantresearchofthisperiodfocusedon
AmericanCareer theconditionknownas“cervicalrib,”inwhichavertebraofthe
Todd’sjourneytotheUnitedStatesin1912marksaconvenient humanneckdevelopsariblikestructure.AccordingtoSirArthur
chronologicaldivideforhisbiographers:at27,Toddwasalmost Keith,thismayhavebeenthefirstworkevertodescribearterial
exactly midway through his relatively short life. Of greater changesthatresultfrompressureappliedtothesympatheticnerve
historicalimportance,however,isthedivisionthisyearmarksin supply(Keith, 1939b).ItwasalsothefirstpaperToddauthored
hisprofessionaland scholarlyendeavors. Hischildhood,educa- onthesubjectofgrowthanddevelopmentalchangesreflectedin
tion,andearlyprofessionalexperienceallhadlastingsignificance theskeleton,atopicthatbecameTodd’smajorprofessionalfocus
onthecourseofhislifeandcareer, butthatcoursewouldhave andonwhichhewastodohismostsignificantresearch.
been much different had he stayed in England. He had started Todd’s early work in Cleveland also included his first
downapathinvolvinganatomy,clinicalmedicine,andsurgeryat professional work in the field ofphysical anthropology. Soon
Manchester, and was contemplating a career in the diseases of afterhisarrivalatWesternReserve,Toddbegantoincorporate
childrenwhenofferedhisAmericanpost.Fromthatpointon,the this subject into his lectures and the curriculum. (Waite, the
singular opportunities his Western Reserve position presented WesternReserveMedicalschoolhistorian,contendedthatTodd
andthestill-formativestate ofsomatologyinthe United States brought the subject into instruction “to a degree that brought
aalulnoiwqeudelTyoAdmdertiocbaennedndhi—stchoensdiedveerlaoblpemesnktillofamnoddeefrfonrtAsmetroiwcaarnd mcoanytihnauveedbceoemnpltaruien,tsbuftrWoamitset’usdefnatisr”nes[sWaiinted,ea1l9i4n6g,wpi.th40T8o])d.dThhiass
physicalanthropology. already been demonstrated to be suspect.) His first published
worksofastrictlyphysicalanthropologicalnaturewerealsohis
only published items on fossil man and human ancestors. In
EarlyyearsinCleveland: 1912-1919 a series of seven articles published in the Cleveland Medical
Toddmaturedprofessionallyoverthecourseofhislifeinthe Journalbetween 1914 and 1915, Todd summarized the state of
UnitedStates,butthefirstfewyearshespentinClevelandsetthe knowledgeinthefieldtothatpoint,infrequentlyaddinghisown
tone for the rest of his career. Although his most important cautious speculations (T. W. Todd, 1914a-e and 1915b-c).
professionalworkdidnotculminateuntilafterWorldWarI,he Although these articles were by no means groundbreaking or
hadfirmlyestablishedhismajorresearchinterestsbythetimeof significantinthedebateofthelargeranthropologicalcommunity,
the Treaty ofVersailles. It was during this period that Todd they are an early demonstration of the independent and
conducted his earliest work on the alimentary tract and the dispassionate nature of his scientific thought. With gracious
dentitionofhumansandothermammals,twoareasheexplored apologies,hecontradictedtheexpertopinionsofhisdearfriends
throughouttherestofhiscareer. Onatheoreticallevel,Todd’s andmentorsG. ElliotSmithandArthurKeithwhenhefeltthe
earliestyearsatWesternReservemarkedbothhisfirstforaysinto fossils spoke to a different conclusion. Despite his intense and
the field of physical anthropology, and the professional de- lifelonginterestinfossilsandhumanorigins,thelectureshegave
velopmentofwhatbecamethemajorthemeofresearchforthe aboutthemintheUnitedStatesandabroad,andtheincreasing
rest of his career: the growth, development, and maturity of publicandprofessionalattentionpaidtothefieldthroughouthis
humans, particularlyasrecordedontheskeleton. Perhapsmost life,Toddneverpublishedanotherarticleonthesubject(A.Todd,
significantly, this interval also marked the beginning of his personalcommunication,28June 1995).
contributiontowhatbecamehismajormaterialaccomplishment, Theworkofgreatestlong-termsignificancefromTodd’sfirst
the massive expansion of the Hamann comparative anatomy yearsinCleveland,however,washisexpansionoftheosteological
collection into the world-renowned Hamann-Todd osteological andanatomicalcollectionsbeguninthe1890sbyhispredecessor.
assemblage. Apart from his scholarly endeavors, Todd’s first DeanHamann.WhenToddarrivedin1912,themuseumincluded
yearsinClevelandalsorevealedhisidiosyncratic(somemightsay theH. K. CushingcollectionofRockyMountainmammalsand
autocratic)administrativestyleandtheprofessionalproblemsit about100humanskeletons.Overthecourseofthenext26years,
continuedtocausefortherestofhislife. Toddimmenselyincreasedthesizeandscopeofboththeprimate
Todd’searliest research in Clevelandfocusedonsomeofthe and human components ofthe aggregation. By the time ofhis
problemshehadbeenworkingoninManchester. Hepublished death, this amounted to hundreds of primate skeletons
several articles regarding the clinical cases he had examined including a larger orangutancollection than the Smithsonian’s,
duringhishospitalwork,aswellassomepiecesoncomparative the largest chimpanzee assemblage on the continent, and an
anatomy based on his work at the Manchester and Cleveland eighthoftheworld’sgorillaosteologicalmaterial.Inadditionto
zoos. In 1915, Todd published his first book. The Clinical the wealth ofskeletal material, its accompanying collection of
AnatomyoftheGastro-IntestinalTract.Anassemblageofhisown radiographs, photographs, and drawings remains an invaluable
clinical work in this area and the work of others scattered resourceforprimatescholars(Johanson, 1982,p.2—4).
throughouttheperiodicalliterature,thevolumereceivedatepid Perhaps even more impressive than this contribution to the
review from The Lancet, commending Todd for gathering so collection, though, was Todd’s acquisition ofmore than 3,000
muchinformationintoonetextbutchidinghimfornotdigesting human skeletons from the contemporaryAmerican population.
orsortingthedatamorecarefully(Anonymous, 1915). Reviews Toddbuiltmostofthisassemblagefromunclaimedbodiesatthe
wereconsiderablymorekindforhissecondbook,AnIntroduction CuyahogaCountyMorgueandcityhospitals.BothHamannand
to theMammalianDentition, publishedin 1918. Dentaljournals Roger Perkins (director ofCleveland’s Division ofHealth and
complimented him on his comprehensive work, his “terse and Western Reserve’s professor of preventive health) had made
lucid”prose(Anonymous, 1918),andstatedthat“nolectureron Todd’swayinthisefforteasierbyhelpingtorevisetheanatomical
Comparative Dental Anatomy can afford to do without it” lawsoftheStateofOhio(Bickel, 1959).AccordingtoOhioCode
(Anonymous, 1919). Toddcontinued to pursueresearchon the Sections1713.34-1713.42and1713.99,thesuperintendentsofcity
digestivetractanddentalanatomyuntilhisdeath. hospitals,theClevelandWorkhouse,andlocalmortuarieshadto