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SYMBIOSISANDTRANSFORMATIONINKENYA'SMERUDISTRICT BY PAULGOLDSMITH ADISSERTATIONPRESENTEDTOTHEGRADUATESCHOOL OFTHEUNIVERSITYOFFLORIDAINPARTIALFULFILLMENT OFTHEREQUIREMENTSFORTHEDEGREEOF DOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY. UNIVERSITYOFFLORIDA 1994 UNiVERSITYOFFLORIDALIBRARES DEDICATEDTOGEORGESMARDON WHOTAUGHTPATffiNCETHROUGHEXAMPLE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thisdissertationrepresentstheculminationofmanyindividualefforts. Itwas fundedbytheSocialScienceResearchCouncil. TheRockefellerFoundationprovided supplementaryassistanceforthecollectionofsoildata,whichalthoughitdoesnot appearhere,alsocontributedtotheoverallstudybyfinancinganadditionalroundof revisitstofarmsinthesurvey. Ialsoreceivedinvaluablematerialandmoralsupport frommembersofmyfamilyandfriendsatseveralcriticalpointsonthewaytowards completingthefinalproduct. Thechairmanofmycommittee.ProfessorRonaldCohen,providedsteadyand untiringintellectualstimulationandguidance. TothisIwouldaddtheexampleof uncompromisedtheoreticalleadershipofProfessorMarvinHarris,theconceptual acumenofProfessorReneLemarchand,andtheuniquelysincereapplicationof intellectualideastoAfricanphenomenaProfessorGoranHydenrepresents. Professor ArtHansenalsoprovidedasupportiveandpracticalangleontheoverallenterprise,and ProfessorR.HuntDavisandProfessorPeterSchmidtdeserveimportantcreditfortheir institutionalandpersonalsupport. IbenefitedfromaninformalMeruthinktankonIgembedevelopmentwhileinthe field. ItsmembersincludedJamesLaiboni,JoelKamincha,SamweliMeemee,Elias Maitheta,StanleyKarunga,GitongaM'Limung'i,NgolwaM'Limung'i,Mutabari M'Limung'i,andcountiessotherlocalintellectualsoperatingfromdifferent occupationalnichesinMeruandotherpartsofKenya. BashirAbdi,PeterMbabuand YusufAhmedofMeruMutindwaprovidedhelpfulbackgroundondifferentissues rangingfromlocaltreestoMeru-SomalirelationsinIsioloandtheNorthernFrontier District. OsmanMaltaM'MutungaofMajengowasaninvaluablesourceofinformation forthecontemporarymiraatrade;otherMerueldersincludingYusufMuchekeand ShabaanHassanManuacontributedinformationonthehistoricaldevelopmentofthe miraatrade. TheDistrictOfficerforIgembeDivision,Mr.Wandiama,warrantsspecialmention asthekindofunsungleaderonthegrassroots-administrativeinterfacethatrarely receivetheattentiontheydeserve. ProfessorH.W.O.OkothOgendoprovided invaluableinstitutionalsupport,andacceptedmeasaresearchassociateatNairobi University'sInstituteforPopulationStudyandResearch. Mr.ManioftheNational CouncilforScienceandTechnologyandMr.KibunaoftheOfficeofthePresident assistedmewithofficialclearancewithoutwhichthefieldstudywouldhaveremained stillborn. ProfessorDavidGordon,ofUSAID'sREDSOofficeinNairobihelpedwith iii inputonmyquestionnaires,whichwerebasedonInternationalInsituteforTropical AgriculturesurveyinstrumentsProfessorAbeGoldmanwaskindenoughtosharewith me. ThelibrariansandstaffattheKenyaNationalArchives,USIAlibrary,andatthe InternationalCenterforAgroforestryResearchallopenedtheirfacilitiestomyuseand mademefeelwelcome. Dr.AnthonyKinyuaofNairobiUniversity'sCenterfor NuclearScienceTechniquesprovidedasteadyinstitutionalbaseandfeedbackoverthe durationofthestudy. IshouldalsomentionthedivisionalagriculturalstaffinMauafor theircooperationinthefield. Theviewsandencouragementofmycolleague.Dr. BashirJama,alsowarrantacknowledgement,asdoestheexposuretotropical agriculturethatIreceivedfromProfessorsHughPopenoe,RobertConrad,KenBuhr, andP.K.NairattheUniversityofFlorida'sInstituteforFoodandAgricultural Science. Ithankmymother,Ms.JoanSmardon,mywifeSafiyaUsama,andmychildrenfor theirinvaluablesupport,tolerance,andunderstandinginvariousways. Iamalso gratefultoPeterSokolandJillDygertfortheirpracticalassistanceduringthefinal periodoftheworkinprogress. AhmedSamatarofColdSpringHarborLaboratory, RobertComes,andDr.DorothyEdwardsoftheWashingtonUniversitySchoolof OccupationalTherapyprovidedinvaluablecomputersupportduringthefinalstagesof write-up. CarolLauriault'seditorialandqualitativeinputswerecriticalinseeingthe project'sfiiiitionfromitsinitialconceptiontoputtingthedocumentinitsfinalform. PeterO'Malleyprovidedstimulationft-omNewOrleans. AndrewGoldsmith,George Thirikwa,Ali"Mwarabu"Mohammed,DavidTomlinson,andPeterBrinkwartkeptthe wheelsrolling. Finally,likesomanyotherswhohavetreadthispathbeforeme,I thankProfessorGwenCarterforhersupportandinspiration. iv TABLEOFCONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii ABSTRACT viii CHAPTERS 1 CULTURE,SYSTEM,ANDSYMBIOSISINMERU 1 TheMemPeoples 3 AnthropologicalResearchintheNewCanaan 7 FeedbackfromtheField 10 DefiningDevelopment 13 TheCulturalEndowmentProblem 17 2 PROBLEMS,CONSTRAINTS,ANDADAPTATION 20 TheEmpiricalProblem: Population,AgriculturalSystems,andPolity 20 TheEvolutionoftheState 22 ProblemSolvingandParadigms 28 AnthropologicalResearchTraditions 29 AnalyzingSocialSystems 32 TheCultureProblem 35 CultureandCulturalEndowment 37 Culture,Feedback,andSocialLearning 39 Symbiosis 40 CoevolutionaryProcessess 43 3 KURIA! ABRIEFfflSTORYOFCULTURALLY SUSTAINEDMERULANDANDRESOURCEUSE 46 SustainabihtyandCulturalAdaptation 48 Kuria:TheMeruDefinitionofSustainability 49 PrecolonialDynamics 50 Maasai-MeruRelations 53 TheNyambeneMeru 55 TheMeruCulturalEndowment 57 TheNjuriNcheke 58 Age-SetOrganization 61 Clans,Kinship,andtheGichiaroSocialRisk-Spreading Mechanism 64 TheAathiCulturalIdeology 66 TheNjuriinTransition 70 NjuriNcheke-BritishAdministrationCooperation 72 V TheNyambeneFarmingSystem 75 ModemDynamicsofNyambeneMemCulturalInstitutions 78 4 THECOMMERCIALIZATIONOFNYAMBENE AGRICULTURE 86 PrecolonialTradeNetworks 86 TheDeclineofPastoralistPower 87 TheImpactofIvoryonRegionalTradeNetworks 88 LateNineteenthCenturyEnvironmentalCatastrophes 89 TheBritishInfluence 91 TheRiseofMiraaasaCommercialCommodity 93 SocialAspectsofMiraaConsumption 95 TheSocioeconomicContextofMiraaProduction 97 TheNyambeneRangeandTheMemFarmingSystem 99 TheDevelopmentoftheMiraaTrade 103 IgembeControloftheUrbanTrade 107 TheInternationalMiraaTrade 109 MiraaAndRuralDevelopment 114 Cash-CropsinComparativePerspective 115 5 NYAMBENEAGRICULTUREAND AGRO-ECOLOGICALZONES 113 TheResilienceoftheIgembeSystem 120 AgronomicAspectsofMiraaProduction 123 TheLandVariablesinNyambeneSmallfarmProduction 128 CropsandCultivars 133 IndigenousAgroforestry 135 TechnologicalInnovations 137 Livestock 138 ConstraintsandInputs 141 ProductionandIncome 145 6 COMMERCIALIZATIONANDECOZONESYMBIOSIS 149 TheMemLowlandsinPerspective 150 Kenya'sAgriculturalPoHcy CommercializationandEcozoneSymbiosis 152 SectoralGoalsforKenyanAgriculture 153 EcozoneSymbiosis 161 LocalLinkages 162 MarketsandtheDynamicsofTechnologicalChangeinthe Nyambenes 164 ProductionMarkets 165 CropDifferentials 168 MarketInfluences: TheCaseofSorghum 172 ConsumerandInputMarkets 173 ConsumptionTrendsandHouseholdExpenditures 178 SocialDynamics:CulturalEndowmentandSocialLearning 180 FormalandInformalGroupMembership 182 AfricanDevelopmentalProcessesRevisited 184 vi 7 CONCLUSION: FEEDBACKANDTRANSFORMATION 187 AfricanDevelopmentalProcessesRevisited 187 TheResilienceofAfricanAgriculture 189 TheStateandLx)calSystems 193 FissionandFusion 193 FusionaryForces: CultureRevisited 195 TheUrbanEcozoneandGenerationalDynamicsRevisited 197 REFERENCES 200 BiographicalSketch 220 vii AbstractofDissertationPresentedtotheGraduateSchool oftheUniversityofFloridainPartialFulfillmentofthe RequirementsfortheDegreeofDoctorofPhilosophy SYMBIOSISANDTRANSFORMATIONINKENYA'SMERUDISTRICT By PaulGoldsmith April1994 Chairman: RonaldCohen MajorDepartment: DepartmentofAnthropology ThisstudyaddressesprocessesofagriculturalsystemsdevelopmentinMeru District. ThestudydemonstrateshowlocalAfricansocietiescoevolveinamanner wherepopulationsadapt,specialize,merge,anddivergeinvariouswaysthatallows newformsofsocialandeconomicorganizationtoemergeovertime. This coevolutionarydynamiclinkstheIgembeMerutotheirpastwhileprojectingtheir developmentalprocessesintothefuture. Meruenvironmentalhistoryreflectshow variationacrossecologicalzonesinfluencesanumberofsocialmicro-adaptations. The Meruagriculturalsystemevolvedthroughcontinuousculturalsymbiosisofhunter- gather,pastoral,andagriculturalgroups. Ethnicityfollowedgroupeco-niche specialization,favoringexchangeacrossecologicalzonesandtheriseofregionaltrade networks. TheNyambeneMerusystemfeaturedinthisstudyservedasthehubofan extensivetradenetworkspanningtheregionbetweenMt.KenyaandthesouthernLake Turkanaarea,continuestodemonstrateahighlevelofbiodiversity,adaptiveresponses tomodemmarketphenomena,andculturalinstitutionsthatembodytheirindigenous, cross-generationalconceptofsocialsustainabilitywithinthecontemporarycontextof capitalist-ledchange. Localsystemsadaptingincrementallycontributeinturntothe processesofQ-ansformationonthenationallevel,justasmacro-leveldevelopments createpossibilitiesonthelocallevel. viii CHAPTER1 CULTURE,SYSTEM,ANDSYMBIOSISINMERU IamtheLordAlmighty,andIhaveledyououtofEgypttothelandofCa-naan. HolyBible,BookofNumbers. Thisstudyisbaseduponfieldresearch^designedtoinvestigatethecommercializationof agriculturalproductionasthemaindeterminantofsmallfarmagriculturalchangeinthe NyambeneRange,alineofhillsextendinginanortheasterndirectionfromthefoothillsof MlKenya. Thestudyisbothanagro-economicanthropologicalstudyofhow commercializationinhighpotentialareasinfluencestheadjacent,semi-aridlowlands,and anexplorationofhowculturalfactorsinfluenceandcontributetoagrariansystems. The studydemonstrateshowlocalAfricansocietiescoevolveinamannerwherepopulations adapt,specialize,merge,anddivergeinvariouswaysthatallowsnewformsofsocialand economicorganizationtoemergeovertime. ThiscoevolutionarydynamiclinkstheIgembe Merutotheirpastwhileprojectingtheirdevelopmentalprocessesintothefuture,and definesthemulti-sectoralnatureofindigenouseconomy. TheNyambeneregionhasaratherfantasticappearance. Whenviewedfromafarthe hillsandcalderaformageometryofsoftcurves,angles,andconicalshapes. Tropical alpineforestcapsthepeaksandupperhillsidesoftherange. Theplainsbeloware punctuatedwithlunaresquemassifsdominatedbytheGibraltar-likesilhouetteofShaba imposedinfrontofthehillsofSamburucountryinthedistance. Thelocalfarmssituated in-betweentheforestandtheplainsresemblesmalljungles,adenseriotofvegetationwith thelongcrookedbolesofmwenjela (Cussoniaholstii)treesprojectingabovethecanopies likefringedstovepipes. TheeyetakesinatrulylargeswathofcentralandnorthernKenya fromvantagepointshighintherange,andtheconfigurationandnatureofthehills themselvesappeardifferentwhenviewedfromvariousangles. The200,000Igembepeople,asectionofthegreaterMerucommunity,inhabitthecore ofthisarea. TheIgemberelypredominandyonagriculture,supplementedbycattleand smalllivestockthatarepasturedinthelowlands. Theirfarmingsystem,basedonthe region'sbiologicaldiversitylargelydisregardstechnologicalmonoculture. Accesstoland ^ThisresearchwasfundedbyadoctoralresearchfellowshipprovidedbytheSocialScienceResearch Council,madepossiblebyfundsprovidedbyHewlettPackard. 1 2 isregulatedbyclanswhichcontrolstripsoflandextendingfromthewell-wateredhillsto thedryplains. Otherwise,thecriss-crossedconfigurationoftheMerupolityandsocial structuredoesnoteasilyfitconventionalanthropologicalcategoriesofgroupsocial evolution(c.f.JohnsonandEarle1987). ThelivesoftheIgembeMeruarestillintertwined withimportantculturalinstitutionsthathavelongsincelapsedinotherpartsofMeruand Kenya;age-setsandwarriorinitiationrituals,gichiarofictivekinshiprelations,andlocal councilsofthepan-Meruparliament,theNjuriNchekecontinuetoinfluencethedailylives oftheIgembe. Thecommercializationofagriculturalproductionhasnotoverturnedthe internalorderasmuchasithasreinforceditthroughculturalfeedbackofcross-generational continuityandadaptation. Allofthis"otherness"survivesintothe1990sinthepresenceofhomogenizingforces ofthecapitalistworldsystem,includingintensecommercializationoflocalsmallholder agriculture. Indeed,theinfluxof"cashmoney,"supportIgembeincomelevelsmatchedin fewotheragriculturalareasofEastAfrica. UnlikeothersmallfarmareasinKenya characterizedbythelackofit,moneyisatleastpartiallyresponsiblefortheunusualstateof affairsintheIgembe-inhabitedcoreoftheNyambeneRange. Anewdedicationto"cash money"hasnotdisplacedtheroleoffoodasadomesticcurrency,andasaresultthe Igembehaveconvertedthelowlandareasformerlyreservedforgrazingtofieldcrops. This replacessomeofthefoodproductioninthehighlandsloweredastheirindigenous agroforestryplotsmatureinahundredyearcycle.Atthesametimetheyhaveacquired morecattlethantheypossessedbefore,whichenhancestheorganicinputrecycling propertiesoftheirmixedagro-silvo-pastoralagriculturalsystem. ThelocalMerumunchandexchangesmallbunchesofmiraa(Cathaedulis),atree domesticatedforthemildlystimulatoryqualitiesofitsyoungtwigs,astheygoabouttheir work. Overthelastcenturymiraahasevolvedfromanaccessorytotraditionalsocial ceremonyandritualtoacommercialcropthatservesastheengineofthelocaleconomy. Miraaconsumption,andtheincreasedsocialinteractionandinformationexchangethat accompaniesit,isaninterestingsubjectinitsownright Miraa,astheprimarycommercial cropinIgembeareas,isanimportantelementwithinthelocaleconomy. Becauseitisalso animportantsocialcomponentinNyambenesociety,itcreatessocioeconomicand environmentalfeedbacksintothedevelopmentalprocessthataresomewhatmore complicatedthan,forexample,thoseassociatedwithcoffee,tea,orcotton. EnvironmentaldifferentialsintheEastAfricanhighlandsengenderedecologicallybased specializationandexchangeamongandwithingroups. LocalmarketsintheNyambenes aresituatedmainlyonthecreasesofecologicalzones,andhistoricallyservedasamagnet attractinganumberofagricultural,agro-pastoral,andnomadicpastoralists. Boththisand