Svāmī Rāma Tīrtha and His American Audiences

14 Pages·2016·0.21 MB·English

by  Ankur Barua

religions
Article
Returning Home to the Advaitic Self:
Sva¯m¯ı Ra¯ma T¯ırtha and His American Audiences
AnkurBarua
FacultyofDivinity,UniversityofCambridge,CambridgeCB39BS,UK;[email protected]
AcademicEditor:PeterIverKaufman
Received:6September2016;Accepted:5December2016;Published:8December2016
Abstract:ArecurringthemeintheAdvaitaVeda¯ntatraditionsisthenecessityofempiricalpurification
throughmeanssuchasthecultivationofvirtues,thestudyoftheVedas,andsoon,eventhoughthe
transcendentalselfhasneverbeensubjecttoanyformofbondage. Thetraditionsseektomitigatethis
paradoxbyemployingthevocabularyofashiftacrossthe‘levels’oftruth—whiletheworldlyselfis,
empiricallyspeaking,movingtowardsthegoalofrealization,fromthetranscendentalperspective,
theselfneverlosesitseternalnature. WewillexplorehowSva¯m¯ıRa¯maT¯ırtha(1873–1906)addressed
thisthemeoftherecoveryofone’sessentialselfinhislecturestosomeAmericanaudiencesbetween
1902and1904. DrawingonsomeofthevocabulariesofSwamiVivekananda,whohadpresented
a‘PracticalVeda¯nta’toWesternaudiencesinthelate1890s,Ra¯maT¯ırthadevelopedanAdvaiticform
ofself-realizationthatispracticallyengagedwiththeworldand,accordingtohim,isthespiritual
questofhumanityacrossallboundaries.
Keywords: Sva¯m¯ıRa¯maT¯ırtha;SwamiVivekananda;ModernVeda¯nta;PracticalVeda¯nta;Hinduism
inAmerica
1. Introduction
The classical Advaita Veda¯nta traditions of exegesis and experience are structured by
afundamentalparadoxwhichisembeddedintheconceptualprojectofassertingthatthetemporal
ego,the‘I’,ismetaphysicallynot-differentfromthetimelessreality,Brahman. Sinceitisenmeshed
in worldly ignorance (avidya¯), the ego, itself a product of this ignorance, mistakenly regards the
worlditindwellstobetheultimatereality. Therefore,the‘return’oftheegotothetranscendental
self (a¯tman) is, strictly speaking, not the culmination of a temporal pilgrimage, but simply the
realizationthatithasnever,intruth,strayedawayfromitstranscendentalhome. Wewillexplorehow
Sva¯m¯ıRa¯maT¯ırtha(1873–1906)addressedthisthemeofthe‘recovery’ofone’sessentialselfinhis
lecturestosomeAmericanaudiencesbetween1902and1904. Drawingonsomeofthevocabulariesof
SwamiVivekananda,whohadpresenteda‘PracticalVeda¯nta’toWesternaudiencesinthelate1890s,
Ra¯maT¯ırthadevelopedanAdvaiticformofself-realizationthatispracticallyengagedwiththeworld
andisthespiritualquestofhumanityacrossallboundaries.
Ra¯maT¯ırthawasbornon22October1873inapoorBrahminfamilyinMuraliwala,atownin
Punjab. Throughsheerhardworkinthemidstofill-healthandfinancialdifficulties,hepassedthe
degreeexaminationin1893withascholarship,andthenanM.A.inmathematicsin1895.Hispassionate
devotiontoKr.s.n.a,duringhisearlyyears,theinfluenceofanabbotofamonastery(p¯ıtha)inthelineage
ofS´am˙ kara,andhismeetingwithSwamiVivekanandaculminatedinhisrenunciationofallsocialties
in1901([1],p. 8).TravellingfirsttoJapanandthentoAmerica(1902–1904),hepreachedadistinctive
formofAdvaitaintowhichwasinterwovenSufithemesofunionwiththebelovedandVais.n.avabhakti
imageries. Ra¯madiedbeforecompletingasystematicoverviewofhowhis‘PracticalVeda¯nta’could
beappliedtosocialandpoliticalissues. However,hislectures,whichweretranscribedbyAmerican
admirersandcollectedinthevolumesInWoodsofGod-Realization,indicatehisattemptstorecastthe
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SanskriticvocabulariesofclassicalAdvaitaintotheidiomsofdevotionalpoetry,scientificempiricism,
andsocialregeneration. Onethemethattiestogetherthiscomplextapestryisthatwemustrecover
ourspiritualsovereigntyinandthroughourworldlyengagements. Wehavetoturnawayfromour
immersionintransientpleasuresandreturntothetruehome,whichisthesovereignselfcommon
toall,thedomainofrealbliss,andthesourceofpower,joy,andlife. Byactivelystrivingtorealise
the inner self, even in the midst of the world with its noise and turmoil, we recover our spiritual
autonomy: ‘LiveVedantaeveninthesesurroundings,andwhenyouliveVedanta,youwillseethat
the surroundings and circumstances will succumb to you...’ ([2], p. 45). However, Ra¯ma reminds
hislistenersthatthereis, infact, nobondagefortherealself, whichisalwaysfree. Consequently,
realisationoftheselfconsistspreciselyinknowingthatoneisalwaysspirituallyautonomous: ‘Asyou
think, so will you become. Think yourself to be God and God you are. Think yourself to be free
and free you are this moment’ ([3], p. 68). Ra¯ma’s lectures are peppered with exhortations to his
listenerstorealise,atthatverymoment,theirinnersovereignty:‘YouaretheDivinity,theLordoflords
youare;feelthat. Realiseitthismoment. Havefirm,unswervingfaith,realiseknowledge,practical
knowledge’([2],p. 140). Yet,Ra¯maalsocautionsthemonotheroccasionsthatthegoalofundoing
one’sworldlyattachmentscannotbeaccomplishedatonce,sothattheycannot‘becomeChristinhalf
aminute’([4],p. 5). Whileourinnerdivinityisnotoutsideus,througha‘strangeoblivion’webecome
forgetfulofthisspiritualnature([4], p. 144). Fromanempiricalperspective, then, self-recoveryis
anarduousprocessthatinvolvespeopleburningawaytheirignorance,egoism,andselfishnature
withthefireofknowledge.
Thedialecticofundertakingaspiritualpurificationtoregaintheselfwhichis,transcendentally
speaking,alwaysfreeshapesfourcentralthemesthatappearinseveralofRa¯ma’saddresses: wemust
realise the inner self through which we enjoy an intrinsic kingship over the world; the worldly
successofEuropeansandAmericansistobeexplainedintermsoftheirunselfconsciousadoption
of the principles of Advaita; the truths of Advaita are not authoritarian dicta but are verifiable
through spiritual experimentation in one’s own lives; and Advaita provides ‘practical’ teachings
with which we can negotiate our worldly careers even as we seek the eternal. These are also
someofthecharacteristicnotesofwhathasbeenlabelledas‘neo-Veda¯nta’,whichreferstodiverse
reconfigurations of classical Vedantic materials which were articulated by Hindu such figures as
SwamiVivekananda. TheyrespondedtoChristianmissionarycritiquesofHinduismaspolytheistic,
pessimistic,andworld-negatingbyreconstitutingformsofHinduspiritualitywhichtheyprojected
asbeingbasedon,oralignedwith,scientificempiricism,socialactivism,andreligiousuniversalism.
Firstly,theformsofVeda¯ntathatbegantoemergeundercolonisedmodernitiesinBritishIndiawere
presentedasverifiablethrough‘experimentation’,anddisconnectedfromauthoritarianstructures,
ecclesiasticalhierarchies,anddogmaticformulations. Thus,SwamiVivekanandapresentedtheVedas,
inhislecturestowesternaudiences,asarepositoryoftheexperiences(anubhava)ofgiftedindividuals
whoareabletoverifythespirituallawsenshrinedinthemthroughadirectapprehension([5],p. 60).
ForSwamiVivekananda,thedepthsofthetranscendentalselfareaccessiblethroughaninwardturn
thatisguidedthroughyogicpractices,anditisthisexperientialturn,andnotscripturalstatements
orinstitutionalstructures, thatconstitutesthespirituallifethatisinnatetotheHindu: ‘Letothers
talk of politics, of the glory of acquisition of immense wealth poured ain by trade, of the power
and spread of commercialism, of the glorious fountain of physical liberty; but these the Hindu
minddoesnotunderstandanddoesnotwanttounderstand. Touchhimonspirituality,onreligion,
on God, on the soul, on the infinite, on spiritual freedom, and I assure you, the lowest peasant in
Indiaisbetterinformedonthesesubjectsthanmanyaso-calledphilosopherinotherlands. Ihave
said... that we have yet something to teach to the world’ ([6], p. 148). Secondly, through a set
ofcomplexpsycho-biographicalreasonsthatincludehisfirst-handexperiencesofimpoverishment
duringhistravelsthroughIndia; hisongoingreflectionontheteachingshehadreceivedfromhis
guru, Ramakrishna; the socio-economic transformations brought about by colonial interventions;
therealizationthattheHindutraditionscansupplyindigenousresourcesforfaminerelief,andso
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on,VivekanandatransformedtheearlierHindunotionsofindividualcharitableactsperformedby
householderstosustained,plannedandsystematicinterventionsasaproperresponsetosuffering
humanity. Inthecourseofaconversationwithadisciplein1898,SwamiVivekanandaargued: ‘First
ofallcomesthegiftoffood;nextthegiftoflearning,andthehighestofallisthegiftofknowledge.
Wemustharmonisethesethreeidealsinthis[Ramakrishna]Math’([7],p. 159). HespokeofVeda¯ntaas
a‘practical’religionwhichthroughitsscripturalteachingof‘thouartthat’urgespeopletoovercome
anysenseofinnerweaknessandpromotesasenseofonenessamongindividuals([8],p. 301). Thirdly,
forSwamiVivekananda, modernisedformsofVeda¯ntawerethefoundationofreligiousharmony,
tolerance,andmutualunderstanding. Thus,hearguedthat‘allthereligions,fromthelowestfetishism
tothehighestabsolutism,meansomanyattemptsofthehumansoultograspandrealisetheinfinite,
eachdeterminedbytheconditionsofitsbirthandassociation,andeachofthemmarkingastageof
progress’([9],pp. 331–32).
The colonial circumstances were somewhat different in Ra¯ma T¯ırtha’s Punjab, where Hindu
groups,suchastheAryaSamaj,theSanatanaDharmaSabhas,andsoonwereprimarilyengagedinthe
processesofarticulatingtheboundariesofthe‘Hinducommunity’,inthefaceofanxieties,generated
partlybythedecennialcensuses,thatthenumbersoftheHindushadsufferedarapiddeclinebecause
ofconversionstoChristianity. WhilethereligiouslandscapeofthePunjabwas,therefore,marked
by movements that sought to promote the ‘true’ Hindu community, as opposed to the competing
groupsoftheSikhs,theMuslims,andothers,Ra¯mafollowedadifferentrouteofconfiguringaform
ofVeda¯ntathatwastobetheuniversalspiritualfoundationofallindividualsacrosscommunities.
AsR.Rinehartpointsout:‘Inanerainwhichcommunitiesjostledforhighprofilepublicrepresentation
andnumericalsupremacyandsoughttodemarcateclearlytheboundariesthatseparatedthemfrom
everyoneelse,Ra¯maattemptedtoredefinethetermsofthedebate. Ratherthanmarkingthelinesto
distinguishhisownreligiouscommunityfromothers, heofferedaninclusivestrategythatwould
redirecttheenergiesofdifferentgroupstowardacommongoal.Insodoing,hesoughttomakePunjabi
Hindus—numericallyintheminority—themajoritytraditionofthePunjab, India,andindeedthe
entireworld’([10],pp. 187–88). ForRa¯ma,theconflictingreligiousgroups,notonlyinthePunjab,
but also in the world, were to be visualized not as forming isolated blocs but as approximating,
tovaryingdegrees,thetruthofhis‘PracticalVeda¯nta’,which,aswewillsee,wasbroadlymodelledon
thetemplateslaiddownbySwamiVivekananda.
2. TheUniversalKingshipoftheAdvaiticSelf
Ra¯mastatesonseveraloccasionsthathumanbeingsmistakenlyattributethegloryofthespiritual
self,thelightoflights,tothetransientbody,andbecomefullofprideandvanityinbodilypossessions.
After we study astronomy, we know that the sun does not truly move, only the Earth’s motion is
mistakenlyascribedtoit. Likewise,whenVedantinslookattherisingsun,theyknowthat,infact,
thegloryoftherealselfismistakenlyattributedtothesun([2], p. 148). Weshouldovercomethe
egotisticalidentificationwiththebodilyselfthroughwhichwehaveimposedbondageonourselves
andbecomesubjecttoworldlyills. Ra¯maanalysesarangeofhumanills,convictions,andaspirations
intermsofthemistakenattributiontothebodyofthespiritualsovereigntythatweallnaturallyenjoy.
Firstly,althoughhumanbeingsareawarethateveryonediessomedayortheother,theygoonliving
asifdeathisnotapossibilityforthem. Thisimplicitbeliefthattheywillnotdiespringsnot,ofcourse,
fromthetransientbody,butfromthetrueselfwhichisimmortal([11],pp. 156–57). Secondly,people
seek freedom all over the world even though they know that they are subject to various kinds of
bondage. Thisquestforfreedomrisesnotfromanexternalsourcebutfromthetrueself,whichis
eternallyunlimitedandunbound([11],pp. 161–62). Thirdly,evenifpeopleknowthattheycannot
accumulateallthewealthintheworld,theyarenotcontentwithwhattheyhaveandseektogain
morewealth. Thereasonwhypeopletrytopossessthewholeworldinthismannerisbecausethe
realselfis,infact,thespiritualmasteroftheuniverse. Thus,havingmistakenmaterialprosperity
forspiritualautonomy, theyseektemporaldominionintheir worldlyexistence([11], pp. 165–67).
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Fourthly,theexplanationforwhyhumanbeingsliketobeflatteredisthattheyarerootedintheself
whichisindeedthegreatestofthegreat,thehighestofthehigh. Theyarenotaware,however,that
suchflatteryshouldbedirectednotatthefalseselfofthebody,butattherealselfwhichistheproper
objectofalladulation,praise,andglory([11],pp. 190–92).
Thus, while the true self is the emperor of the whole world, the Shah-i-jahan, human beings
mistakenlyconfinethisselftothesmallprisonofthephysicalbody([11],p. 168). Alludingtothe
classical Advaita notion of the mutual superimposition of the self and the not-self, Ra¯ma argues
thatpeopleattribute,throughignorance,themonarchyofthetrueselftothebodyand,conversely,
themiseryofthebodytothetrueself. However,ifignoranceisremoved,evenanindividualwith
nomaterialpossessionsbecomesthemonarchoftheuniverse,forsuchanindividualisfreefromthe
prisonofthebody,andhasrealisedthetrueselfwhichisthemasterandtheruleroftheuniverse([11],
p. 171). Thewholeworldwillturnasidetomakeawayforanindividualwhohasrealisedtheself,
andthushasacquireddivinecontrolovertheworld([12],p. 122). Again,justasthemerearrivalof
amagistratesetseverythinginorder,whenoneisestablishedinthetruthoftheself,andinstalled
in the position of the ‘disinterested Supreme Judge’, everything is enlivened and placed in order
by the light of the self ([3], pp. 56–57). An individual who is grounded in the true self will say:
‘InMedoesthewholeworldlive,moveandhaveitsbeing. EverywhereitisMywillthatisbeing
done. ItisMykingdomthatisreigningsupremeeverywhere...Iamthelowest;Iamthehighest...I
am the spectator, I am the showman, I am the performer...The friends I am; the foes I am...’ ([2],
pp. 151–53). Suchindividualshaveattainedthekinglystatusbyrisingaboveworldlydesiresand
remainingcontentedwithinthemselves. Justasthesunistheneutralwitnessofallplanetarymotions,
and of all earthly phenomena such as the melting of glaciers, the blowing of the wind, and so on,
theenlightenedonesgoaroundunselfishlyintheworld,whilesheddingthelightoftheinnerself,
andstayinginthegloryofthedivineconsciousnessof‘thesameI’.Thus,onebecomesthesupreme
powerwhoseordersareobeyedbyallworldlypowers([3],pp. 126–27). Suchaspiritualmonarchwas
theHinduasceticwhomtheworld-conqueringAlexanderonceencounteredonthebanksoftheIndus.
AlexanderaskedtheascetictotravelwithhimtoGreece,buttheasceticrefused,withtheresponse:
‘Theworldisinme. Theworldcannotcontainme. Theuniverseisinme...’ Alexanderthenpromisedto
showerhimwithallkindsofworldlygoods,butherefusedagain. Finally,Alexanderwasaboutto
strikehimwithhissword,whenhelaughedandsaid: ‘OAlexanderneverinyourlifedidyouspeak
suchafalsehood,suchanabominablelie. Killme,killme,killme! Whereistheswordthatcankill
me?...’([11],pp.173–74).
Thesedepictionsoftheself’ssovereigntyareechoesofthemedievaltext,theAs..ta¯vakrag¯ıta¯,with
whichRa¯mawasfamiliar([13],p. 241). PremodernSouthAsianholymenwereoftennotreclusive
renouncersbutcharismaticindividualswhopossessedthaumaturgicpowerandofferedassistance
toworldlyhumanbeingswiththeirmundaneproblems. WhilesitesassociatedwithSufiholymen
(pir)werecentresofspiritualpower(baraka)aswellassocio-economicinfluence, thethemeofthe
‘spiritualgovernment’ofthesaintsalsoappearsinSikhhagiographieswhichspeakoftheSikhgurus
asthetrueemperors([14],p. 108). Thisspiritualsovereigntyenjoyedbytherenouncerisindicated
inseveralversesoftheAs..ta¯vakrag¯ıta¯,suchasthefollowing: ‘OwonderfulamI.Iadoremyself,asI
havenodestruction,remainingevenafterthedestructionoftheworldcomprisingeverythingfrom
Brahmatotheclumpofgrass’([15],p. 45). However,ifwewishtoregainsuchsovereignty,wewill
haveto‘payaprice’,namely,worldlyattachmentshavetobesevered,prejudicesdissolved,andfalse
notionsthrownaway. Wehavetocultivatepurityofheart,whichisfreedomfromallattachmentsto
theworld([4],pp. 6–7). Toremaincheerfuleveninmomentsofsadness,melancholy,andsickness,
wehavetocrucifythelittleself,andpractisethecentralteachingofVeda¯nta,whichisthatthetrue
selfistheonlystablereality([3],pp. 54–56). ThroughthegreatsacrificeofBrahman(Brahma-yajña),
anindividualwhohasrealisedtheself(a¯tma-yajñ¯ı)canattainswara¯jya,whichis‘thenativethrone
ofinnerglory’. Suchanindividualoffersuptothefireofknowledge(jña¯na)allthesenses,worldly
attachments,notionsof‘mine’and‘thine’,passions,relations,questions,namesandforms,andso
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on. Theseshouldbesetonfire,andtheirincenseenjoyedasoneisablazeonthealtarof‘thouart
that’([12],pp. 121–22).
ForRa¯ma,one’sspiritualautonomyistobeexpressedinallaspectsofeverydaylife,including
acarefulexaminationofreligiousteachings. Oneshouldnotacceptareligionsimplybecauseitis
theoldest,foroldideasareoftenfalse;becauseitisthelatestarrival,fornewideas,whichhavenot
beenproperlytested,arenotalwayscorrect;becauseitisacceptedbyavastmajority,sincealarge
numberofpeoplecanbelieveinafalsity;andsoon. Rather,oneshouldsiftthroughtheteachingsof
figuressuchasBuddha,Jesus,andothers: ‘Befree,freetolookateverythingbyyourownlight’([11],
p. 24). The fixed point that Archimedes sought is not external to the world but is, in fact, within
the transcendental self. One has to realise this point of spiritual gravity, and know that one is the
lord of lords, the source of all beauty and power, and the king of the world ([3], p. 145). Thus he
exhortshisaudience: ‘Keepyourselfalwaysincentre. Benotcentreout. Justasthefishliveinthe
oceanofwater,justasthebirdsliveintheoceanofair,justsoyouliveintheoceanoflight. Inlight
youlive,move,andhaveyourbeing...Theinnerlightisalwayspresent’([2],p. 114). Bycultivating
dependenceonthetrueselfinthismanner,onecanalsoovercomeaservileattitudetoone’ssuperiors,
aswellasananxietyabouthowoneisbeingperceivedbyotherpeople([2],pp. 73–75). Oneshould
realise oneself to be the light of lights, and remain engaged in work with no concern for worldly
fame, popularityorflattery([3], p. 71). Indeed, thepeoplewhohavetrulychangedtheworldare
they,suchasChrist,S´am˙ kara,andothers,whohavedependedonthemselvesandrealisedtheirinner
divinity([3],pp.138–39).
Ra¯mahimselfwaswaryofbeinginvolvedwithsocietiesorinstitutions,orreceivingpraiseand
adulation: ‘Away with your loves and homages to the seeming Rama. These are an insult to the
realRa¯ma—theSelfofall...Wakeupfromthedreamofforms’([2],p. 20). Hedeclaresthathedoes
notpractisementalhealing,becausehewouldbesurroundedbypeoplewithrequeststhathehelp
theminmattersrelatingtoworldlyprogress. Suchpracticesaredrivenbya‘mercantilespiritand
commercialism’,whicharedetrimentaltothepursuitofrealfreedom([4],pp. 153–54). Hedoesnot
seektoconvertpeopletohisteachingsorgatherfollowersaroundhim,butsimplytriestolivethetruth
which‘requiresnodefenceanddefenders’([13],p. 28). Heenvisagesasocietywhichpursuestruth,
butisnotboundtotheteachingsofanyspecificindividual. There,memberscanspeakfreelywhen
theyfeelinspired,likethenightingalewhichsingsmostbeautifullywhenitsingsnaturally: ‘Donot
beboundbylawsandrules. Truthcannotbeboundbylines’([4],p. 173). Ontheotherhand,ifone
livesVeda¯nta,withtheknowledgethatoneisthelordalmighty,theruleroftheuniverse,thesupreme
divinity,onewillbesurroundedbydisciples,justaschildren,whodonotadvertisethemselves,receive
numerous disciples. Again, just as people seek out the Shasta Springs in California because these
watersarepure,buttheShastaSpringsarenotconcernedaboutwhetherornottheyreceivevisitors,
similarly,oncetruth,life,andpuritygushforthfromtheheart,oneimmediatelybecomes,asitwere,
theShastasprings,andwillattractdisciples([3],pp. 148–50).
3. TheAdvaiticFoundationsofChristianAmerica
Since we are essentially the supreme self, we should therefore approach the divine in full
awareness of our inner divinity, and not as grovelling sinners or miserable wretches who are
searching for happiness: ‘You are Infinite, God Almighty you are, Infinite God you are. Believe
that’ ([3], pp. 65–66). We should give up the finite consciousness with which we regard ourselves
aslimited,impaired,anddivided,andknowthat,intruth,thatwearethewholeandthealmighty.
Thescripturesstate, Ra¯mapointsouttohisaudience, thattheselfcannotbeattainedbytheweak
(na¯yama¯tma¯ balah¯ınenalabhyah.). JustasonewillbeexpelledifoneseekstomeetthePresidentofthe
United States in beggarly dress, one will be thrown out if one wishes to meet God in the state of
abeggar([2],p. 135). Weshouldbefearless,byrisingabovethebodyandremainingestablishedinthe
self,forVedanticinsightandfearlessnessareinseparable([3],pp. 61–62). Oneshouldnotseektohide
one’sinnerdivinity,ratheroneshouldstatefearlessly,‘IamGod,IamGod’,forthedivinenatureis
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one’sbirthright([4],pp. 141–42). Therefore,Christians,Muslims,Vais.n.avaHindus,andothersshould
understandthattheyaretrulysavednotthroughthenamesoftheirreligiousfounders,butthrough
thepowerofthetrueself. Theyshoulddistinguishbetweencreedandfaith—whathasthepower
tosaveisthefaithintheinnerdivinity([3],pp. 172–73). Ra¯madeclaresthatthereligionhebrings
toAmericacanbegivenanylabel,foritisfoundnotonlyintheBibleandotherancientscriptures
butalsointhelatestphilosophicalandscientifictreatises, ispresentineveryaspectofthenatural
world,concernsalldimensionsofhumanlife,andcanbepractisedanywherewithoutmembershipof
aspecificgroup([3],pp. 26–27). ThereisnotraceofsectarianisminVeda¯nta,whichisthetruththat
isuniversal. WhetherinGermanyorinAmerica,allindividualswillarriveatthesameconclusions
preachedbyVeda¯nta,iftheyapproachthematterwithanindependentspirit,‘liberallywaivingall
prejudices,predilectionsandpreconceptions’([16],pp. 123–24). Peopleshouldnotascribelabelsto
himsuchas‘Hindu’,ashedoesnotbelongtoanyone:‘SoonceforallRamawantstoletyouknowthat
RamaisnotanIndianonly;RamaisalsoanAmerican;takenotRamaasaHindualone,Ramaisalso
aChristian;takenotRamaasaslaveofthiscreedorthatdogma. RamaisyourownSelf,Independence
itself’ ([16], pp. 70–71). The pure self, without tincture, unsoiled, and sparkling is common to all,
oneandthesame,andunchangeable,anditisonlythroughtheir‘ignorantpredication’thathuman
beingsattributevariousempiricalattributessuchasnationality,religiousaffiliation,andsoontothe
self([4],pp. 133–34).
FromthisAdvaiticstandpoint,Ra¯mareconfiguresChristiandoctrinesasteachingswhichpromote
therealizationofthetimelessself. Christwasa‘manofrealization’,whowasonewiththeFather,
the all, and who had merged his personality into the divine. His disciples connected themselves
to Christ, and by loving Christ and feeling their oneness with Christ, they naturally shared his
divinity([12],pp.174–75). Ra¯maarguesthattopeoplewhobelievedthattheyarelostandnatural
sinners, andstandonthebrinkofhellishpunishment, Paulpreachedawayoutoftheirdarkness.
BybeingbaptisedintoChrist,joiningthechurch,attendingservices,supportingpriests,andsoon,
theyacquiredalivingconvictionandacouragethattheyaresaved. ThestrengththatChristianity
hasprovidedtotheminthismannerisindeedarealsalvation,andthispointmustbehighlightedto
thosewhodenouncetheChristianfaith. However,Christiansshouldbetaughtthetruththat,infact,
peoplearenotmiserablesinners,thattheirtrueselfisnotfallen,andthattheyhavealwaysbeenpure,
immaculate,thelordoflords,thesupremedivinity([3],pp. 165–68). Ra¯maconcludesthat‘thesaving
element in all Christianity is Vedanta...If after all the ceremonies are over, you become firm in the
convictionof“Iamsaved,”andnothingelse,justremember,itisVedanta,permeatingandpervading
yourChristianitywhichsavesyou’([3],p.169).HearguesthattheChristianitywhichisseeninEurope
andAmericais,infact,aformofChurchianitywhichisbasednotonrenunciationofworldlygoods
butongreedandmaterialacquisition. TheteachingofChrist,‘SeekyetheKingdomofHeavenand
everythingelsewillbeaddeduntoyou’,is,however,practisedbymanyreligiousindividualsinIndia,
whoofferthebody,mind,andallworldlyattachmentstothe‘feetoftheBelovedOne’([16],p. 53).
Thus, Ra¯ma makes the remarkable claim that the real cause of the material and intellectual
progress of Europeans and Americans is not that they have followed Christianity, but that they
haveunconsciouslypractisedVeda¯nta,whereasthecauseofIndia’sdownfallisthatitspeoplehave
moved away from Veda¯nta ([3], p. 177). All scientific progress and development in philosophical
understanding has been possible because Americans and Europeans have intuitively adopted the
principlesofVeda¯nta,whichstandsforthespiritoffreedom,liberty,independence,andtranscendence
of bodily needs ([16], p. 82). On the other hand, as long as Veda¯nta was practised by the wider
people,Indiaremainedatthehighestpointofcivilization. Powerfulnations,suchasthePhoenicians,
thePersians,theRomans,andtheGreeks,couldnotbringIndiaundertheirsway,andeventhemighty
Alexander,whocommandedthePersianandtheEgyptianforces,hadtoretreatafterheencountered
thesmallIndianprince,Porus([16],pp. 87–88). Thus,Ra¯marespondedtocontemporarypresentations
of causal links between Christianity and the rise of America by noting counter-instances such as
Christianity’sassociationwiththepersecutionoffreethought([17],pp. 107–9). Theeradicationof
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slavery,too,cannotbeattributedtoChristianteachingsinthemselves,forslaveryhadco-existedwith
Christianityforaround1700years. Rather,whenEuropeansandAmericansbegantotraveltodifferent
nationsandbecamebroad-minded,theystoodup,inVeda¯nticspirit,againstslavery([16],pp.82–83).
Again, it is not the Christian preaching of hell-fire that has raised America to its advanced state;
rather,Americahasbecomeprosperousbecauseofscientificdiscoveriesandtechnologicaladvances,
suchasthesteam-engine,electricity,printingpresses,ships,andrailways. TherealcauseofAmerica’s
advancementisgenuinespirituality,whichistobedistinguishedfromthenumerousdogmasand
creeds with which it is presented ([17], pp. 109–11). The contemporary spiritual movements in
America too are ultimately inspired, through chains ranging across continents, by Hindu sources.
Ralph Emerson was inspired by Thomas Carlyle, who had read German philosophers, such as
Kant,Schopenhauer,andFichte,whosewritings,Ra¯maclaims,weredirectlyinfluencedbyHindu
philosophy ([17], pp. 125–26). Greek civilization, the foundation of modern western civilization,
isitselfderivedfromthephilosophyandthespiritualityoftheancientHindus,forthedoctrinesof
Plato,Socrates,andPythagoras,relatingtotheimmortalityofthesoulandmetempsychosisarethe
‘offspring of Hindu philosophy’ ([17], pp. 117–18). The truths of Veda¯nta, therefore, are not alien
intrusionsfromadistantland,fortheypointtotheuniversalityoftheinnerself: ‘Donotconsiderthe
Vedantaisforeigntoyou. No,itisnaturaltoyou. IsyourownAtmanforeigntoyou?’([2],p. 143).
ByhighlightingtheVeda¯nticpresuppositionsofAmericanlife,Ra¯maappealstoAmericanstogo
out to India, the mother who has nourished the world with her philosophy, poetry, and religion,
but who is now sick ([17], pp. 135–36). Americans should educate the Hindus by destroying
their anti-Vedantic ignorance because of which they hold on to distinctions of caste ([17], p. 155).
The Americans themselves are not totally free from caste—if they stay away from the Spaniards
and the English, they are practising political caste; if they will not work with the Blacks, they are
possessedbythedemonofsocialcaste;andtheireverydayprofessionaljealousiesarebasedonaform
of American caste which is ruled by the dollar ([17], p. 158). Thus, American society, too, is not
perfect,andneedsthespiritofVeda¯nta. However,thesituationinIndiaisfarworse,forHindushave
forgottentoadapttothechangingcircumstancesandmoveaheadthrougheducation([17],pp. 159–60).
TheHindusarehypnotizedintoastateofweaknessbytheEuropeans,whiletheyarealsohypnotized
intojealousiesandrivalriesbythedivisionsofcaste. Thus,theyneedtrueeducationwhichisdirected
at freedom and independence (moks.a) ([17], pp. 192–93). Ra¯ma envisages Americans and Hindus
joininghandsinthespiritualandthematerialregenerationofIndia. Ontheonehand,therearemany
learnedVedantinsinIndiawhounderstandtheabstractformulationsbutwhohaveneverpractised
thetruthsofVeda¯nta. TheAmericans,ontheotherhand,maynotunderstandtheabstruseprinciples
ofVeda¯ntabuttheyunconsciouslypractiseVeda¯ntaintheireverydaylives. Therefore,Americans
canserveIndiabycombiningtheirpracticalenergieswiththespiritualdynamismofVeda¯nta([17],
p. 176). More concretely, Ra¯ma appeals to Americans to raise money and bring over graduates of
IndianuniversitiestoAmericaninstitutionsforreceivingindustrialtraining. WhenIndianstudents
landattheshoresofAmerica,andarereceivedwarmlybywhiteAmericansasequals,theywillbeable
toovercometheirfearofthewhiterulers,theirfaithinselfwillberestored,andtheveilofma¯ya¯willbe
lifted([17],pp. 193–94). Thisappealforfundsismotivatednotbyanypersonalinterestsbutbyacause
thattranscendsnationalboundaries: ‘RamaisjustasmuchanAmericanasanIndian. Thewideworld
ismyhomeandtodogoodmyreligion...Ramaisyours,truthisyours’([17],p. 196).
4. AdvaiticTruthinWesternIdioms
Ra¯maelaboratedtheVeda¯ntathathebroughttohisAmericanaudiencesthroughsomeofthe
classical vocabulary, metaphors, and imageries of Advaitic texts, even as he sought to respond to
criticisms levelled against Veda¯nta by Western authors. Thus, invoking the standard definition of
realityinAdvaitamanuals,hestatesthatsomethingisrealifitpersistsandremainsthesameyesterday,
today,andforever([2],p. 103). Theworlddoesnotsatisfythisdefinition,asitdisappearsindeep
sleep,and,accordingtoAdvaitatraditions,alsointhestateofrealization. However,theworldisnot
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totallyunrealeither,becauseitisnotasunrealasthe‘hornsofaman’,butispresentedtousinour
everydaylives. Further,theworldisnotbothrealandunreal,sincerealityandunrealitycannotexist
togetherinthesamelocation. Thus,theworld,whichisneitherrealnorunreal,andalsonotbothreal
andunreal,isoftheformofma¯ya¯ ([16],pp. 119–20).
Ra¯maisawarethatthedoctrineofma¯ya¯isthe‘onestumblingblock’formanystudentsofVeda¯nta,
andheofferstwotypesofresponses. First, hearguesthattoquestionssuchas‘whyshouldthere
bema¯ya¯,whichisthecauseofallworldlydifferencesofmeumandteum?’,which,translatedintothe
vocabulary of Western philosophers and theologians reads as, ‘why should God have created the
world?’, Veda¯ntasimplyconfessesitsinabilitytoanswerthem, forsuchquestionsareraisedfrom
withinthecircleofma¯ya¯ and, hence, cannotberationallyexplicated([16], pp. 98–99). IfAdvaita’s
Western critics view the inability of Vedantins to answer the question about the origin of ma¯ya¯ as
aconceptualdefect,Ra¯maarguesthattheanswersthatthesecriticsthemselvesprovideaboutthe‘why
andthewhereforeoftheworld’areriddledwithconceptualinconsistencies([16],p. 100). Hepoints
outthatquestionsabouttheoriginoftheworldinvolvethevocabularyofspace,time,andcausation,
which,themselves,arepartofthefabricoftheempiricalworld. Therefore,whenweemploythese
empiricalconceptstoexplaintheoriginofthesystemitself,withinwhichtheseconceptsareapplicable,
weare,asitwere,tryingtojumpoutofourselves([16],p. 110). Second,hestatesthattheancientsages
oftheHindushaveexplainedma¯ya¯asillusion,inthesensethatwemistakenlyseeasnakeinaropeor
thereflectionofafaceinthemirror. Theformerisanintrinsicillusionwheretheillusoryobjectandthe
realobjectcannotexistatthesametime,andthelatterisanextrinsicillusionwhereboththeseobjects
canexistatthesametime([16],pp. 125–27). DevelopingthestockAdvaitaexampleoftheropewhich
appearsasasnake,Ra¯maarguesthatinthe‘rope’ofultimatereality,whichisbeyondallempirical
phenomena,thereappears,throughanintrinsicillusion,theserpent-likeworldofnamesandforms.
Afterthisintrinsicillusion,therearisestheextrinsicillusion,becauseofwhichwemistakenlylookat
thesedifferentiationsashavingarealityoftheirown,andsubsistingbythemselves. Veda¯ntateaches
ustoreversethisprocess,firstbynegatingtheextrinsicillusionsandthentheintrinsicillusions([16],
p.132). WhilereligionssuchasChristianity,Islam,Buddhism,Zoroastrianism,andothershavehelped
us to overcome our extrinsic illusions, Veda¯nta goes further than them, by showing us how to go
beyondalsotheintrinsicillusionsoftheworld. Therefore,Veda¯ntaisnotopposedtothesereligions,
ratheritfulfilswhattheyhadstarted,andsupplementsthem([16],p. 128). Veda¯ntateachespeople
howtoenterintotheirdeepestself,whichisthe‘preciousjewel’thattheypossesswithinthemselves,
thoughtheydonotknowtountietheknotwithinwhichthistreasurelies([4],pp. 39–40).
Ra¯ma’sclaimthatAdvaitafulfils,andnotsimplysetsaside,devotionalworshipisareflection
ofhisattemptstoinfuseAdvaiticteachingswiththevernacularidiomsofPunjabiVais.n.avaandSufi
traditions,therebycombiningthedoctrineofnon-dualismofthefiniteselfandBrahman,theOne
withoutasecond,withtheevocativeimageriesofromanticanderoticlove[18]. Theinterlayeringof
AdvaiticvocabularywithdevotionalimagerycanbeseeninRa¯ma’sdelineationofthethreetypesof
religioussectsintheworld.Thefirstaddressthedivineas‘IamoftheLord’(tasyaiva¯ham).Thedevotees
viewGodasdistantfromoneself,andspeakofGodinthethirdperson. Thisstateisthebeginningof
religion,wherethedevoteesregardeverything,includingtheirbodies,asbelongingtoGod,andattain
greathappinessthroughthisconsciousness. Thisinitialstateleadstothesecondconsciousnessof
thedivineas‘IamThine’(tavaiva¯ham). Heretheveilbetweenthehumanandthedivinehasbecome
thinner,fortheLordisnearertous,andwearemorefamiliarwiththeLord. Thehighesttypeaddress
the divine as ‘I am Thou’ (tvameva¯ham). Here, all distinctions between the Lord and the devotee
areannulled: ‘thetwobecomeoneandtheloverandthebelovedarelostinLove. ThusisVedanta
realized’([4],pp. 42–45). ThetrueloverofGodbecomesonewithGod,andfinallyrisestothehighest
stateofreligiousdevelopmentwhereonerealisesone’sunitywiththedivine: ‘Thatisthehighest
devotion. ThisiscalledtheVedanta,whichmeanstheendofknowledge. Heredoesallknowledge
find its end; here is the goal reached’ ([4], p. 46). The Vedantic goal requires an effacement of the
empiricalself,aprocesswhichRa¯masometimesarticulatedintermsofhisdeepdevotiontoKr.s.n.a.
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ThefluteofKr.s.n.asymbolisesaheartwhichisdevoidofallegoism,andweshouldplayontheflute
topurifyourhearts,turntowardsthedivine,andgiveupallworldlyattachmentsandconnections.
WeshouldwooGodpassionately,hungerforthevisionofthetrueself,andcraveforthetasteofthe
supremerealityoftheself([4],pp. 84–85).
ForRa¯ma,thesummitofAdvaitaisindicatednotonlybydevotionalworshipbutalsobythe
practicesofscientificexperimentation. Weshouldtrytorealisetheteachingsoftheancientscriptures
in our own practice and verify them in our life ([19], p. 173). Rama informs his audience that he
hashimselfpractisedthesetruths: ‘Ramatellsyounothingfromhistory,fromthelivesofgreatmen.
What Rama tells you is from his own personal experience, and it is what you can also realise for
yourselves. RamatellsyouthatwhenwerealisetheTruthandfeeltheReality,theworldisconverted
intoaveritableHeavenforus’([2],pp. 85–86). Thisspiritualityistheultimatescienceandthescience
ofthesoul,andithastobeapproachedinthesamewayinwhichweapproachatextonchemistry. Just
aswedonotacceptstatementsinthetextsimplyontheauthorityofchemists,buttestthemthrough
ourownlaboratoryexperiments,likewiseweshouldnotacceptreligiousstatementssimplyonthe
authorityofothers([17],pp. 111–12). Therefore,asRinehartnotes,Ra¯ma’s‘PracticalVeda¯ntawasnot
theproductofphilosophicalargumentationsocommontootherformsofVeda¯ntabutresultedfromhis
ownintenselypersonalexperiences,hisownexperimentsininsight’([20],p. 195). Ifourexperiments
withthespiritareguidedbyscientificlaws,wewillbeabletounderstandthedeepesttruthsofthe
spiritualworld,forinstance,thelawofkarmaandrebirth. Veda¯nta,the‘chemistryofsoul’,follows
thelawsofthepersistenceofforce,indestructabilityofmatter,andconservationofenergywhichtell
usthatmentalenergy,intheformofdesires,emotions,andfeelings,cannotbedestroyed. Different
childrenhavediverseinclinations,propensities,andphysicalfeatures,andthesedivergencescannot
originatefromutternothing,buthavetobeexplainedintermsofunfulfilleddesiresfromprevious
birthswhicharebeingpassedontothisbirth([16],pp. 181–86).
5. PractisingVeda¯ntaintheWorld
Advaitaisnotonlythemeetingpointoftheworld’sphilosophicalandscientifictruths,butalso
thereconciliationofourimmersioninworldlyengagementsandourquestfortheeternal. Vedantic
renunciationissynonymouswithknowledgeofthetrueself,therealizationthatoneisthesupreme
reality.Thistruthisnottobeapprehendedmerelyintellectually,butfelt,andputintoactionthroughout
one’slife,sothatonebecomesliberatedeveninlife(j¯ıvanmukta)([12],p. 135). Renunciationshould
notbemisunderstoodaspassivehelplessnessorweakness,forthroughitweshineforthasthesunof
truthandrecoverthedivinemajesty([12],pp. 118–19). Ra¯maseekstorespondtothecriticismthat
Veda¯ntateachesindolenceandinaction,byarguingthataproperunderstandingofworkshowsthat
allintenseworkis,infact,rest. Thisparadoxicalstatementpointstothetruththatwhenpeopleare
intenselyabsorbedinwork,theirsenseof‘I’hasdisappeared. Whilefromanexternalstandpoint,they
mayseemtobeworkingstrenuously,theythemselvesdonotfeelthattheyaredoerswhoareengaged
inlaboriousactivity,fortheyaresodeeplyimmersedinworkthatthesmallegohasdissolved([3],
pp.29–30). Ra¯maarguesthatincessantwork,inwhichthesenseof‘I’isdissolved,isthepractical
Veda¯ntathroughwhichonecanattainworldlyprosperityandsuccess([3],p. 34). Throughearnest
work, people can rise above the little self, and lose themselves in the eternal self. As the traces of
worldly individuality are lost and Veda¯nta is practically realised in these individuals, the divine
musicianwilltakethemupasinstrumentsandsendoutsweetmusicthroughthem. Theydonothave
toretiretotheforestsandpractiseformsofyogatoattaintheself;rather,absorptioninone’swork
intheworldis,itself,asupremeyogicpractice([3],pp. 30–31). Pursuingthistheme,Ra¯maargues
thatthetruemeaningofenjoyment(bhoga)is,infact,renunciation(yoga),fortherecanbenorealjoy
or real inspiration except in the state when the ‘I’ has been renounced. Poets or artists are able to
producegreatworksnotwhentheyconsciouslyseektocreate,butwhenthethought‘Iamdoing’is
dissolved([3],pp. 86–87). Thus,inallworldlyoccupationsoneshouldremainestablishedintheself
andnotbeanxiousaboutwhetherornotonewillreceiveexternalaids. Theselfintheworkeristhe
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sameselfinthesurroundings;therefore,ifone’smindisin‘harmoniousvibration’withthesupreme
self,assistancewillspontaneouslyarrive([3],p. 58). Theworldlyaccomplishmentsofindividualssuch
asByron,Washington,Bonaparte,andothers,werepossibleonlybecausetheyunselfconsciouslylived
inaccordancewiththeVedanticteachingsofdenyingthelittleself. Theywereabletokeepthemselves
unattachedtotheworldanddirectalltheirenergiestowardsaspecificgoal. Forinstance,Newtonwas
abletorisetoastateofabstractionfromhissurroundings,andpracticallyrenouncetheworld. Hindu
philosophypresentsthistruthofrenunciationinasystematicmanner,intheformofasciencewith
specificrules,sothatpeoplemaypractiseitintheirworldlylives([12],pp. 132–34).
Ra¯maoftenprovidesspecificinstructionsregardingpracticesthatoneshouldadoptinrecovering
one’sinnerdivinity,evenasoneremainsengagedinmundaneoccupations. Hetellshisaudiencethat
hedoesnotrecommendthatpeopleshouldshirktheirresponsibilitiesorgiveuptheiroccupations.
Rather,theyshouldcultivate,eveninthemidstoftheirwork,aformofVedanticrenunciationsuch
thatbyremainingfirmlyonthisrocktheywillgivethemselvestotheirworkwithoutfeelingtired.
Theyshouldtakeshortintervalsofaminuteorso,anddevotethattimetothethoughtthatoneis
trulyawitnessofthebodywhichisnotanultimatereality([4],p. 235). Sinceourmindshavefallen
undertheinfluenceofworldlymagnets,wehavelostouroriginalpowers. Wehavetoburyourselves
inthetruedivinitybylivingaloneforawhileandsettingasidesometimeforcommuningwiththe
divine. Therebytheexternalmagnetizationwillbelostandonceagainwewillbetrulyinspired([3],
pp. 103–4). Spiritualprogressthereforeisanarduousprocess,wherewehavetoconstantlyseekto
overcomethelittleself. WeshouldchantthesyllableOM,throughwhichwecangraduallyascend
tothestateofsuper-consciousness,andwiththeincreaseofourspiritualpowerswewillbeableto
remaininthatstateforanincreasinglylongerduration([2],pp.181–82).Ifwhileseekingtoconcentrate
themind,andchantingOM,thoughtsofhatredappear,weshoulddissectthem,andunderstandthat
theyareproducedbytheignoranceofattributingthe‘I’tothetrueself. Weshoulderadicatesuch
thoughts,andfirmlyresolvetowithstandtheminthefuture. Evenifhalfanhourisspentindissolving
themandwearenotabletoreachthestateofsuper-consciousness,wewillrisetothatheightanother
day([2],pp. 183–84).
Vedanticrenunciationisthekeyalsotodomestichappiness. Justasitwouldbeidolatrytolove
a picture for its own sake, and ignore the person who is depicted there, husbands and wives can
becomeslavestothecorporealnaturesofeachother,forgettingthattheyare,intruth,theimagesof
theself([12],pp. 141–43). IfChristians,Hindus,andMuslimsreallywishthatworldlymiseryshould
end,theyshouldestablishmatrimonialrelationsonfairterms,wherethewifewillnotseektoenslave
thehusband,justasthehusbandwillnottotrytomakehiswifedependentonhim([12],pp. 152–53).
Husbandsandwivesshouldpractiserenunciationintheirdailylives,suchthattheyseekeachother’s
welfarebytrustingintheinnerself: ‘EverywifewillhavetobecometheChristofherhusbandand
everyhusbandwillhavetobecomethesaviourofhiswife’([12], p. 138). Thewifewhohelpsthe
husbandinacquiringalivingfaithandalivingknowledgeofthetrueselfistheChristofherhusband,
andviceversa([19],p. 155). Thus,oneshouldrealisetheself,andhelpone’swifeandchildrento
realiseittoo,suchthatonebecomesfreeandsetsthemfreeaswell([12],p. 164). Justaswecanthinkof
theEarthastakingthemoonwithitasitrevolvesaroundthesun,menorwomenwhohaveembarked
onthetaskofrevolvingaroundthesunofthetrueselfcantaketheircompanionsalongwiththem.
Thus,insteadofworkingonlythroughtheirownbody,theycanworkthroughmanybodies,sinceall
bodiesareultimatelyoftheself([12],pp. 172–71). Thenaturalprogression,accordingtoRa¯ma,isto
beginwithone’snearanddearones,aligningtheirinterestswithone’sownandthen,bydegrees,
movingoutwardtootherfamilies,sothatwecanfeeltheonenessofall([12],pp. 173–74).
Further,therenunciationthatVeda¯ntateacheshastobeappliedpracticallytothequestionsof
thenationalregenerationandtheidentityoftheHindus. Thetwentiethcenturydescendantsofthe
Vedicsageshavetorememberthattheylivenotonlyintime(‘longitudinally’),astheinheritorsof
Vedictruth, butalsoinspace(‘latitudinally’), wheretheyhavetoacceptthepracticalteachingsof
Japan and America. He is not asking them to abandon their national identity, but to develop by