Sustainable Tourism. Theory and Practice

248 Pages·2006·1.592 MB·English

by  David Weaver (Eds.)

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Foreword
This book has a rich, up-to-date and innovative didactical and pedagogical value,
thus becoming an essential tool for tourism university students at the beginning of
the century. It clearly responds to the unavoidable need to include the principles
of sustainability in all study areas, but especially in tourism, which has become one
of the main social and economic phenomena of our times.
If tourism is to continue growing and diversifying in the next decades according to
the same patterns that were observed in the second half of the twentieth century, it is
not conceivable to let it follow such an expansion without mastering its wide range
of impacts, both positive and negative, upon the social, economic and environmental
fabrics of societies. In this context, educating future tourism industry professionals is
crucial, both for developing more awareness about sustainability issues, and for pro-
viding them with the necessary tools for addressing those issues in their concrete,
day-to-day tourism operations and in the policy-making decisions in tourism.
This publication is also a practical handbook for current tourism destination, site
or enterprise managers. It can help them in raising the level of sustainability in their
activities. It allows them to learn about the different sustainability challenges facing
the tourism industry today, how to redress current unsustainable operations, and
how to take informed decisions regarding the expansion or refurbishment of exist-
ing facilities to make them more sustainable, or to plan and develop new tourism
infrastructures that guarantee long term, sustainable operations.
For students and operators, the book clarifies the concept of sustainable tourism,
which is not to be understood as a particular variety of tourism as it is sometimes
wrongly thought, but rather as an overriding approach to tourism development and
management applicable to all the segments of the tourism industry. In this respect,
Chapter 4, dedicated to mass tourism, is an a fortioriexample, showing that sustain-
able principles must be applied to all human activities, and tourism, in all its forms,
must be included in the general sustainable development of territories and nations.
According to the Conceptual Definition established by the World Tourism
Organization, sustainable tourism must:
● Make optimal use of environmental resources that constitute a key element in
tourism development;
● Respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities, conserve their built
and living cultural heritage and traditional values, and contribute to inter-
cultural understanding and tolerance;
● Ensure viable, long-term economic operations, providing socio-economic bene-
fits to all stakeholders that are fairly distributed, and contributing to poverty alle-
viation; and
● Maintain a high level of tourist satisfaction and ensure a meaningful experience
to the tourists, raising their awareness about sustainability issues and promoting
sustainable tourism practices.
In order to implement the equally important three dimensions of sustainability
reflected in this definition (environmental, socio-cultural and economic), and to
viii Foreword
ensure the quality of the tourist experience, all stakeholders in the tourism sector are
relevant and play complementary roles. Indeed, it is known that actors in the
tourism industry are very numerous, and they all share a common responsibility
towards sustainability. However, this responsibility is differentiated and each stake-
holder should assume it and establish, whenever necessary, the appropriate part-
nership with other actors. The book reflects well this multi-stakeholder nature of
tourism, as well as its trans-sectoral implications.
Quality, the notion of which is often linked to sustainability, is also dealt with in
this book. Indeed, in today’s world, no product or service can be considered of high
quality if it does not comply with sustainability criteria. These criteria should be the
basis on which tourism organizations, companies and destinations should establish
quality labels, associating such labels with suitable indicators of sustainability.
Indicators are crucial tools and help tourism managers at all stages, from planning
decisions to monitoring process, but also in zoning and for determining carrying
capacities. The book dedicates part of Chapter 3 to indicators, with corresponding
references to the substantive work carried out in this field by the World Tourism
Organization in recent years.
After explaining various managing tools and techniques, such as visitor manage-
ment, and presenting some of the tourism destinations, like small islands or cities, this
publication ends by dealing with one particular tourism segment: ecotourism.
Ecotourism is no longer a vague, confusing concept or a marginal tourism segment.
The International Year of Ecotourism in 2002 – which gave the opportunity to open a
wide, participatory debate among all types of stakeholders that reached its peak at the
World Ecotourism Summit in Québec (Canada) – recognized the leading role that eco-
tourism is playing in terms of the overall sustainability of tourism activities. The
Québec Declaration on Ecotourism clearly defines the concept of ecotourism and has
become a reference point in all ecotourism studies, publications and conferences. In
many ways, ecotourism is a microcosm of all the issues of sustainable tourism, but
focusing in a more concentrated way on specific ecosystems and traditional cultures.
As a leading segment in sustainability issues, ecotourism should serve to open new
windows in future research on tourism and its relation with major human challenges
worldwide, contributing as far as possible to the UN Millennium Development Goals.
The book also deals with the main categories of infrastructure and services that
make up a tourism product, avoiding a classical and somehow outdated description
of each of these components, but rather grouping them into two major groups, irre-
spective of whether they are physical, infrastructural elements, or services. Yet, in
both the so-called ‘facilitating sectors’ and in the ‘attractions’, the author stresses the
need to adopt the sustainability approach, addressing first the ways in which each
of these components affects the environment and generates impacts upon the social
and cultural fabrics of societies. The facilitating sectors and the attractions come
together in Chapter 8 of the book to constitute a ‘destination’, and it is here the role
of the host community is examined, and especially the various ways in which com-
munities can influence the level of sustainability of destinations.
In conclusion, there is an adequate and appropriate coverage in the book of the
various denominations that are commonly, but not always rightly used by tourism
professionals and academics, clarifying the concepts of :
● sustainable tourism – namely a condition that all types of tourism must fulfil;
● alternative tourism – referring to the variety of modern, special interest tourism
niches that have appeared over the last couple of decades and that have tended
Foreword ix
to remain outside the mass markets, although not necessarily being more
sustainable;
● conventional mass tourism – referring to the traditional forms of tourism, such as
beach, city, congress and winter sports tourism, and the need for these forms of
tourism to become more sustainable; and
● ecotourism, understood as the segment of the tourism industry operating in rela-
tively wild natural areas.
Clarifying these concepts has become an unavoidable necessity, especially when
talking about sustainability in tourism, in order to erase, once and for all, the mis-
understanding that it is only some segments of the industry that need to be more
sustainable. Perhaps the marketing and promotion of these segments need to be dif-
ferentiated; perhaps also their operational management too, but the sustainability
conditions must apply to all of them.
Eugenio Yunis
Head, Sustainable Development of Tourism
World Tourism Organization
Preface
Introduction
The juggernaut of global tourism continues to roll inexorably in the early years of the
new millennium, with major geopolitical events such as 9/11 and the Iraq war caus-
ing little more than minor and temporary interruptions in the pattern of increased
tourist arrivals and revenues that has persisted since the end of World War II. Mass
tourism destinations are now evolving into mega tourism destinations, ever more
remote places are being incorporated into the global tourism system and the explod-
ing domestic and outbound tourist markets of China and India are poised to propel
global tourism into yet another period of accelerated expansion. Intensifying tourism
activity is affecting more and more places – mostly on earth, but now also in outer
space – and there can no longer be any doubt as to the potential of this sector to effect
fundamental economic, environmental and sociocultural change on destination as
well as origin and transit regions. This change, depending on how this sector is man-
aged, can be either positive or negative and it is the understandable desire to maxi-
mize the former and minimize the latter that has given rise to the now ubiquitous
engagement of stakeholders with the concept of sustainable tourism.
Premises
This book facilitates the engagement process by describing and critically analysing
the extent to which sustainability-related considerations are being pursued within
the global tourism sector. In effect, it engages the contemporary engagement with
sustainable tourism. At least four basic premises inform the content, which is
directed primarily toward senior university undergraduates taking a tourism man-
agement major or minor. First, all scales of tourism are inherently legitimate and it is
a question of how appropriate alternative or mass tourism, or some combination of
the two, is in any given place and time. Having said this, it makes sense to pay par-
ticular attention to the sustainability of ‘mass tourism’ since this accounts for most
tourism activity and is the mode that has been implicated in most negative impacts.
Second, both alternative and mass tourism always entail costs as well as benefits
and neither is a panacea. It is for this reason that managers can only hope to min-
imize rather than eliminate the negative impacts. Third, any strategy aspiring to
attain environmental, sociocultural and economic sustainability, to be viable, must
additionally take into account the imperative of financial sustainability. The other
dimensions of sustainability are moot if an operation goes out of business, while the
ability to pursue those dimensions is enhanced if the operation is profitable. The abil-
ity of the public sector to pursue effective strategies is similarly dictated by the direct
and indirect financial resources at hand. Sustainability deliberations are too often
utopian, yielding superb paper plans for destinations that are unlikely to attract the
xii Preface
necessary funding. Fourth and finally, comprehensive engagement with sustainabil-
ity requires public/private partnerships based on mutual respect and cooperation,
since neither sector can achieve sustainable tourism by itself.
Outline
The first two chapters are introductory, with Chapter 1 examining the historical ori-
gins of sustainable tourism and the extent to which the concept of sustainability has
been adopted and institutionalized by organizations both internal and external to
tourism. Chapter 2 discusses basic issues that complicate the practice of sustainabil-
ity and introduces indicators as a critical component in sustainability-related strateg-
ies and management. Chapter 3 considers alternative tourism, which was conceived
in the 1980s as a more appropriate or ‘sustainable’ form of tourism than mass
tourism. But recognizing that alternative tourism is only a partial solution to the
world’s tourism-related problems, the next four chapters focus on the private sector
mass tourism industry. Specifically, Chapter 4 examines the factors that have given
rise to the industry’s growing engagement with sustainability, including the emer-
gence of the ‘green’ consumer and the advantages associated with size. Chapter 5
looks at the initiatives and issues of sustainability in facilitating sectors such as travel
agencies, tour operators, transportation and accommodations, while Chapter 6 exam-
ines selected mass tourism attractions such as casinos, theme parks, ski resorts and
golf courses. Chapter 7 addresses quality control mechanisms such as codes of con-
duct, ecolabels and awards that attempt to ensure adherence to the precepts of envi-
ronmental and sociocultural sustainability. The next three chapters shift the focus to
destinations (Chapter 8) and to the spatial strategies (Chapter 9) and visitor man-
agement strategies (Chapter 10) that can be employed by public sector managers to
realize sustainable tourism outcomes. Finally, Chapter 11 illustrates and synthesizes
issues raised in previous chapters to one particular sector, ecotourism, which is
described here as the conscience of sustainable tourism because of its explicit focus
on sustainability precepts.
Format
The 11-chapter format reflects the division of most senior university-level courses
into a 12 to 14 week semester, so that allowing time for midterm exams as well as
introductory and concluding housekeeping, one chapter can be covered each week.
Each chapter begins with a list of expectations that the student should meet after
reading and assimilating the text. The text that follows is organized into main sections
(e.g. Section 1.0), primary subsections (e.g. Section 1.2.1) and secondary as well as
tertiary subsections, neither of which are numbered. Important terms are italicized
while asterisks identify organizations, initiatives, etc. for which a relevant web link
is provided near the end of the chapter in the On the net feature. Other supportive
features that follow the main text of each chapter include a Summary, a list of print
resources, a Beyond the Book feature that provides relevant questions and exercises
that go beyond mere reiteration of content and a case study that illustrates concepts
and issues raised by the chapter.
Preface xiii
Limitations
The topic of sustainable tourism encompasses an enormous body of information
and knowledge that expands by the day. It is therefore inevitable that much impor-
tant material will be excluded from this book. In some cases no coverage was avail-
able in English and in other instances my search for relevant information through
personal contact, the web or other sources was unsuccessful. The author would
appreciate being made aware of such material so that it can be considered for inclu-
sion in the next edition. One result of this limited access to information is uneven
geographic coverage. Most of the material pertains to developed regions such as
North America and Western Europe where the involvement with sustainability is
most pronounced, while regions such as Africa, the Middle East and Asia receive
only sporadic attention. A major limitation beyond the author’s control is the
paucity of rigorous academic studies that assess the results of certification pro-
grammes, measure awareness of and support for such initiatives among consumers
and operators and otherwise provide objective evidence by which progress in the
realm of sustainable tourism can be assessed.
Acknowledgements
I am indebted to Eugenio Yunis, Head of the Sustainable Development of Tourism
Department of the World Tourism Organization, for agreeing to write a foreword to
this book, for providing critical WTO documents and for clarifying the administrative
structure of WTO initiatives and bodies in this area. Thanks also to Dr Dirk Glaesser,
Chief of the WTO Publications Section, for granting permission to reprint material
from WTO publications. The following individuals also deserve to be recognized
in respect to the provision of information and/or permission to reproduce
information:
Jenny Dunhill, Editorial Assistant, CABI, for providing permission to reproduce
Table 4.1 from Eagles and McCool (2002) Tourism in National Parks and Protected
Areas: Planning and Management, Figure 1.1 from Font and Buckley (2001) Tourism
Ecolabelling: Certification and Promotion of Sustainable Management, Table 1.4 from
Weaver (1998) Ecotourism in the Less Developed World and Figure 18.3 from Lawton
(2001b) ‘Public Protected Areas’; Helen Gainford, Rights Manager, Elsevier, for
permission to reproduce Figure 2 from Weaver (2000a) ‘A broad context Model
of Destination Development Scenarios’ and Figure 2 from Weaver (in press)
‘Comprehensive and Minimalist Dimensions of Ecotourism’; Annalisa Koeman,
Customer Services Manager, Green Globe 21 for providing information about the
organization’s recent initiatives and the reasons for the current membership pattern
by country; Fanny Langella, the Information Services Coordinator of the Global
Reporting Initiative in the Netherlands, who gave permission to reproduce extracts
of the Tour Operators Supplement for use in Figure 5.1; Francesca Leadlay,
Administrator, Tourism Concern, for giving permission to reprint the Himalayan
Tourist Code; Steve Noakes, Chair of the PATASustainable Tourism Committee, for
providing information about the initiatives of PATA and Green Globe 21; Cathy
Parsons, Global Manager of Green Globe 21 and Chief Executive Officer, Green
Globe Asia Pacific, for permission to reproduce the three Green Globe 21 logos as
well as the Company Standard Environmental Management System and Social
Sustainability Policy; and Peter Semone, Vice President Development, PATA, who
gave permission to reproduce the APEC/PATAEnvironmental Code for Sustainable
Tourism. Thanks also to the Resort Municipality of Whistler for allowing the author
to reproduce portions of their tourism zoning bylaw. Last but definitely not least,
I want to thank Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann team members Sally North, Senior
Commissioning Editor – Hospitality, Tourism & Leisure, for her unflagging encour-
agement and support throughout the process of writing and producing this book
and editorial assistant Fran Ford, who managed the production of the manuscript
after it was submitted.
Chapter 1
Emergence of
sustainable tourism
Chapter objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, the reader should be able to:
(cid:2) describe the growth and geographical diffusion of international tourism since World
War II
(cid:2) discuss how each of Jafari’s four ‘platforms’ perceives tourism in terms of its poten-
tial impacts and sustainability
(cid:2) explain why the destination life cycle model can be regarded as the culmination of
the cautionary platform
(cid:2) describe the relationship between sustainable development and sustainable tourism
(cid:2) explain why sustainable tourism has become institutionalized and
(cid:2) illustrate how sustainable tourism has been formally incorporated into the agendas
of tourism and non-tourism organizations at the global, regional and national levels.
1.1 Introduction
The paradigm of sustainable tourism emerged, and is still evolving, as a result of developments
both internal and external to the tourism sector over the past half-century. The primary purpose of
this introductory chapter is to trace the evolution of the now dominant sustainable tourism para-
digm during this period, using the platform model of Jafari as a framework (Section 1.3). The
extent to which the idea of sustainable tourism development has been formally recognized by
international and regional organizations, both external and internal to the tourism sector, will also
be considered (Section 1.4). As a prelude to this analysis, Section 1.2 briefly describes the status
of the global tourism industry as of 2004 and broadly outlines its dramatic numeric growth and
geographic expansion since World War II.
1.2 Status of global tourism in 2004
Among the most remarkable socioeconomic phenomena of the post-World War II era has been the
expansion of the global tourism industry. International tourism statistics compiled by the World
2 Sustainable Tourism
Tourism Organization (WTO) are subject to periodic revision and should therefore
not be regarded as absolute, but they nevertheless indicate a 30-fold increase in
recorded international stayover tourists (i.e. those staying one or more nights in
another country for reasons that qualify as ‘tourism’) between 1950 and 2004 (see
Table 1.1). Concurrently, international tourism receipts are estimated to have
increased by a factor of 235, from approximately US$2 billion to US$474 billion
(WTO, 2003a). Allowing for inflation, this still represents a ‘real’ 23-fold increase.
Conventional wisdom, moreover, maintains that a 10:1 ratio exists between domes-
tic and international tourists (e.g. Goeldner and Ritchie, 2003), suggesting that the
750 million international tourist trips of 2004 were augmented by 7.5 billion instances
of individuals travelling as tourists within their own country.
Having moved from relative obscurity in 1950 to one of the world’s largest indus-
tries at the beginning of the twenty-first century, global tourism as of 2003 was
attributed by the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) with generating
67 million direct jobs and a direct US$1.28 trillion contribution (or 3.7 per cent) to
global cumulative GDP(gross domestic product, or the value of all goods and ser-
vices produced within a given country in a given year). If the indirect effects are fac-
tored in (e.g. the portion of the oil and automotive industries that are consumed by
tourism), the respective statistics increase to 195 million jobs and a US$3.53 trillion
contribution, or 10.2 per cent, to global GDP(WTTC, 2003a).
While individual destinations often experience dramatic fluctuations in the num-
ber of tourist visits from year to year and over the long term, the overall global pat-
tern since 1950 has been one of almost uninterrupted growth. Stagnation in the early
1980s is associated with a severe global economic recession, while the Oil Crisis of
1973 and the Gulf War of 1991 succeeded only in slowing rather than reversing the
rate of increase (see Table 1.1). One of only two actual declines occurred in 2001 as
an aftershock of the September 11 terrorist attacks in the USA. But given the magni-
tude of those attacks and subsequent events such as the invasion of Iraq, the recov-
ery in 2002 to a growth rate of 2.7 per cent is that much more notable and indicative
Table 1.1
Estimated international tourist (stayover) arrivals 1950–20041
Year Arrivals Year Arrivals Year Arrivals Year Arrivals
1950 25 1971 179 1983 293 1995 565
1960 69 1972 189 1984 320 1996 596
1961 75 1973 199 1985 330 1997 613
1962 81 1974 206 1986 341 1998 625
1963 90 1975 222 1987 367 1999 650
1964 105 1976 229 1988 394 2000 687
1965 113 1977 249 1989 425 2001 684
1966 120 1978 267 1990 457 2002 703
1967 130 1979 283 1991 463 2003 694
1968 131 1980 288 1992 503 2004 750
1969 144 1981 290 1993 520
1970 166 1982 290 1994 551
1in millions.
Source: WTO.